Cortes essays

Cortes papers Cortes: The Life of the Conqueror was composed by Cortes aide, pastor, and secretary, Francisco Lopez de Gomara. The content, an epic written in an elegant style that will in general all the while specify and sum up the introduced achievements, follows the life of Hernan Cortes, quickly addressing his initial life and spending the greater part of its pages itemizing the pilgrims different successes in Mexico. The creator, since he was a buddy, guide, and secretary to Cortes, and was likewise a common cleric, can be supposed to be one-sided towards the glorification of his subject, with whom he was united, what's more, against the local occupants, in his energetic repudiation of the indigenous populaces culture and society. His perspective is one of over the top esteem blended in with the sureness that Cortes each activity was roused by everyone's benefit of Christianizing the new land. The sources utilized by Gomara can be thought to be a blend of direct reports from Cortes, memories, recreations of occasions of which he was not an immediate onlooker, and letters and receipts. As I would see it, the book is a imposing verifiable report that broadly expounds, but on the other hand is an introduction of a verifiable perspective that sees the unitizing power of a Christian God to be its definitive objective, and hence, however it might list physiological and building depictions of non- Christian societies, it in any case fills no other need than to vilify them, while guaranteeing the peruser that the activities of its gallant hero were generally just. In any case, the history is truly coherent, is on occasion entertaining, and doesn't stay away from the intricate introduction of detail frequently found in epic verse, of which it reminded Gomara portrays Cortes youth quickly, expressing that he was an enthusiastic kid who looked for riches and brilliance by venturing out to the ... <!

The Poetry of Judith Wright Essay -- Judith Wright Poems compare Contr

The Poetry of Judith Wright Dynamic This report examines the impacts of Australia just as the all inclusive effect on the verse of Judith Wright. It contains an assessment of both the procedures and the plot behind the sonnets Settlement Man, South of My Days and Eve to her Daughters just as a correlation between the three sonnets. Australia, as Wright⠡â ¦s country, has significantly affected the substance of her sonnets however references to English scenes are steady just as general references to the widespread world. Eve to Her Daughters. ?     Poem Summary The sonnet  ¡Ã‚ ¥Eve to Her Daughters⠡â ¦ recounts unique sin and offers guidance to the ladies (her little girls) of today from Eve with respect to men. The principal verse depicts the results of the fall yet Eve⠡â ¦s acknowledgment of it. The second and third refrains depict Adam⠡â ¦s disobedience to the discipline and the  ¡Ã‚ §insult ¡K the stunt They had played on us⠡â ¨,  ¡Ã‚ ¥They ¡Ã‚ ¦ being God and Satan whom Adam has gathered as a unified resistance. Adam was discontent with the new life and endeavored to fabricate another Eden and put God  ¡Ã¢ ¥out of business⠡â ¦. The third and fourth refrains educate the crowd concerning Adam⠡â ¦s endeavor to see how the world functions and to discredit God⠡â ¦s presence. In his journey to disentangle all that he concludes that on the off chance that it  ¡Ã¢ §cannot be exhibited [it] doesn't exist⠡â ¨. In this procedure he demonstrates that people themselves can't exist and  ¡Ã¢ §refuses to acknowledge the conclusion⠡â ¨. The finish of the sonnet is in a snide tone as a last message to Eve⠡â ¦s  ¡Ã¢ ¥daughters⠡â ¦ that everyone has deficiencies and they generally work out. She recommends that Adam is too obstinate to even consider accepting this and through this he has transformed himself into an undefined conundrum that  ¡Ã¢ §doesn⠡â ¦t exist.⠡â ¨ ?     Universal References The scriptural references to Eve, Adam, Abel and Cain, just as God and Satan are not connected to Judith Wright⠡â ¦s country or any nation specifically yet specifically her Christian childhood. The sonnet reflects women's activist thoughts the same number of her sonnets do and furthermore energize thought by including concealed inquiries inside the sonnet to challenge her crowd. In the third refrain there is referenced various goals that cutting edge individuals are taking a stab at, for example,  ¡Ã¢ §multiplied open doors for safe speculation and higher education⠡â ¨ just as trend setting innovations and interchanges. This refrain has ... ...  Australian References The absolute first line of  ¡Ã‚ §South of my Days⠡â ¨ reveals to us that the sonnet is about Australia as it is Judith Wright⠡â ¦s home nation ( ¡Ã¢ §part of my blood⠡â ¦s country⠡â ¨). The  ¡Ã¢ §tableland⠡â ¨ portrayed in lines 2 and 3 are unmistakably Australian just as the trees referenced in line 4. In refrain 2 the utilization of the word  ¡Ã¢ §yarn⠡â ¨ is likewise Australian. Verse 3 is one of  ¡Ã‚ §Old Dan⠡â ¦s⠡â ¨ anecdotes about a dairy cattle marshal, another unmistakable Australian reference particularly with the incorporation of a dry season referenced and the Hunter Valley. Verse 4 is another story containing references to specific places, for example, Tamworth and the Bogongs, just as explicit references to Australian legends, for example, the Cobb and Co. mail administration and Captain Thunderbolt the bushranger, which are all extraordinarily Australian. End The harmony among Australia and the widespread in the verse of Judith Wright is genuinely despite the fact that it leans more towards Australian verse. The fundamental references in her verse are towards England, Australia and the Bible, all of which she had grown up with and had clear solid impacts on her. The affection for her nation Australia is obvious in huge numbers of her sonnets.

The Different Types of Alcohol Problems

The Different Types of Alcohol Problems Addiction Alcohol Use Print The Different Types of Alcohol Problems By Buddy T facebook twitter Buddy T is an anonymous writer and founding member of the Online Al-Anon Outreach Committee with decades of experience writing about alcoholism. Learn about our editorial policy Buddy T Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on July 23, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on October 18, 2019 Peter Dazeley / Getty Images More in Addiction Alcohol Use Binge Drinking Withdrawal and Relapse Children of Alcoholics Drunk Driving Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery When we talk about someone having an alcohol problem, it does not necessarily mean that they are an alcoholic. Problems with alcohol can range from occasionally drinking at harmful levels to full-blown alcoholism, or alcohol dependence. Not everyone who has an alcohol use disorder is an alcoholic, and not everyone who could benefit from treatment is an alcoholic. You dont have to exhibit all of the symptoms to have a drinking problem. Under the diagnosis guidelines in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSMâ€"5), published by the American Psychiatric Association, there are 11 symptoms of alcohol use disorders. If someone displays only 2-3 of these symptoms they can be diagnosed with a mild alcohol use disorder. Drinkers who exhibit 4-5 of the symptoms are considered to have a moderate alcohol use disorder, and those with 6 or more symptoms, are diagnosed with a severe alcohol use disorder. Alcohol Abuse and Dependence The designation of mild, moderate, or severe alcohol use disorders is the terminology used in official medical diagnoses. The three main types of alcohol problems are probably more commonly described as: Binge drinkingAlcohol abuseAlcohol dependence (alcoholism) Binge Drinking One of the most common alcohol problems is binge drinking, which is simply drinking a harmful amount of alcohol in any one drinking session. Binge drinking is officially defined as drinking 5 or more standard drinks at one sitting for males (4 for females). Why is drinking 5 or more drinks considered a problem? Scientific research has shown that alcohol consumption at that level can do real harm to your health. There are many different ways that binge drinking can cause serious health problems. Therefore, by definition, if you engage in binge drinking, even occasionally, you have an alcohol problem. You may not have a severe problem, or be an alcoholic, but your drinking is considered hazardous. College Binge Drinking The greatest amount of research into binge drinking has revolved around the drinking habits on college campuses, where it is a common practice among 18-21-year-olds. Research shows that students who binge drink are: More likely to damage propertyHave problems with law enforcementMiss more classesExperience more hangoversBecome injured Research also indicates that students on campuses with higher binge drinking rates experience more physical assaults and unwanted sexual advances. Alcohol Abuse Going out with friends and having a few too many on occasion is an alcohol problem, but it is very common among young people. When those drinking bouts begin to cause you real problems in your life, and you continue to drink in spite of the negative consequences, is when your drinking becomes alcohol abuse. It is considered alcohol abuse if you continue to drink in spite of: Poor performance at school or workNeglect of your responsibilitiesTrouble with the lawDrinking while driving If your drinking has caused you problems in other areas of your lifeâ€"social, legal or personal problemsâ€"and you continue to drink despite those reoccurring problems, then your level of alcohol consumption has become abusive. Because alcoholism is considered a progressive disease, if you do not get help for your alcohol problem at this stage, you could be headed for much more severe problems. Alcohol Dependence Alcohol abuse can turn into alcohol dependence very quickly and usually does so along a predictable path. Not only do you continue to drink despite growing problems in your life, but continue after your alcohol consumption begins to affect you physically. People who are alcohol dependent: Continue to drink despite physical or psychological problemsBegin to crave alcohol when not drinkingDevelop a tolerance for the effects of alcoholHave withdrawal symptoms when not drinking Once someone reaches the alcohol-dependentâ€"or severe alcohol use disorderâ€"stage, it is much more difficult for them to try to get and stay sober, because they have developed a physical addiction to and psychological dependence upon alcohol. In short, they have become alcoholics. It is much easier to quit drinking before reaching the alcohol dependence stage, but unfortunately, many drinkers do not reach out for help until their drinking causes them overwhelming negative consequences, a phenomenon known as hitting bottom. Do You Have an Alcohol Problem? Answering questions about having an alcohol abuse problem will give you an idea if your drinking patterns are safe, risky or harmful. Be honest with yourself. Only you will see the results of your test and you can only benefit if your answers are accurate.

Essay about Rhetorical Analysis “the Challenger Address”

Rhetorical Analysis: â€Å"The Challenger Address† The rhetorical situation refers to â€Å"a situation in which people’s understanding can be changed through messages.† (Zarefsky, 12). The rhetorical situation analysis consists of four elements: audience, occasion, speaker and speech, each assessing the quality of speech. In this essay, I will analyze the rhetorical situation of the historical speech â€Å"The Challenger Address† delivered by the 40th president of the United States, Ronald Reagan. Americans had high expectations of the space programs which intended to provide the United States a great sense of achievement. The significance of the space program lies in essence in which symbolized American glory in science and technology. (Lambright)†¦show more content†¦In this aspect, he promised fellow Americans by saying â€Å"We’ll continue our quest in space,† â€Å"nothing ends here; our hopes and our journeys continue.† One of the significant events of Reagan that influenced public was Iran-Contra affair in 1986, which the United States was found guilty by the International Court of Justice of war crimes against Nicaragua. As a result, Reagan’s popularity slipped from 67 percent to 46 percent in less than a week (Mayer). By the time, it was the low point of the Reagan presidency (157, Ehrman) Add to this situation, the failure of space program led to negative ethos of Reagan in public’s mind. President Reagan understood this situation and tried to calm the hostilities by delivering the speech sincerely. The last element of the rhetorical situation is speech. Reagan’s primary objective of this speech was to show his condolence to those of who suffered from the accident and involve audience to join for grief. Throughout his speech his ideas were carried in a coherent way, without deviating from his objective. Reagan achieved this through using various words and phrases that magn ify his emotion. Using phrases such as â€Å"slipped the surly bonds of earth to touch the face of god† illustrated his feeling towards the situation without much of explanation. In addition, because he understood that the audience of this particular speech consisted of diversity ofShow MoreRelatedRhetorical Analysis: the Challenger Address 720 Words   |  3 PagesRhetorical Analysis: â€Å"The Challenger Address† The rhetorical situation refers to â€Å"a situation in which people’s understanding can be changed through messages.† (Zarefsky, 12). The rhetorical situation analysis consists of four elements: audience, occasion, speaker and speech, each assessing the quality of speech. In this essay, I will analyze the rhetorical situation of the historical speech â€Å"The Challenger Address† delivered by the 40th president of the United States, Ronald Reagan. AmericansRead MoreAnalysis of Ronald Reagans Sppech, The Challenger Disaster1723 Words   |  7 Pagesthe Oval Office of the White house, January 28, 1986 President Ronald Reagan delivers his speech The Challenger Disaster; hours after the space shuttle The Challenger explodes while in take off. Thousands witnessed this horrifying event live in person and on television. This mission was very unique allowing the first civilian to ever be allowed in space during a mission. She was aboard The Challenger as an observer in the NASA Teacher in Space Program. Ironically, nineteen years before this disasterRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of President Reagan s Address1621 Words   |  7 PagesRhetorical Analysis of President Reagan’s Address to the Nation about the Explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger Perhaps no greater tragedy defines the American Race for Space than the explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger before millions of Americans as they watched on live TV in 1986. Building on two decades of successful space exploration kicked off by President Kennedy before his death, by the early eighties the American culture both believed that it was our right to fly into space andRead MorePresidential Transitions During The Transition Period Of The Presidency2504 Words   |  11 Pagesuse of this style by presidents, it is not clear where this methodic governing originated. Using historical analysis and case studies, this paper attempts to discover the origin of campaign-style governing during the transition period of the presidency. Using the word diagraming software â€Å"Wordle,† the research shows trends in certain word usage that provides an in-depth look at rhetorical tools used while in the campaign-style transition. Each president had different speeches analyzed and graphedRead MoreQuestions : Questions On Implicit Conflikt Talk3784 Words   |  16 Pagesother for a specific purpose. Yang et al (2012) illustrate the strategies adopted by two parties ( the challenger and the respondent ) inimplicit conflict talk. They do a contrastive analysis and show that the two parties share some strategies such as questioning, stating, mentioning and promising. They also discover some differences in the strategies of the two parties: the challenger tends to use commenting and satirizing while the respondent tends to employ quoting and token agreement. Read MoreRational Appeasement15291 Words   |  62 PagesMunich+ Classical political thinkers from Thucydides to Machiavelli offer many statements of the anti-appeasement view+ Appeasement, many argue, is not just futile: it is self-destructive+ The danger is most acute when many potential challengers exist+ Acceding to one challenger undermines the appeaser’s reputation for resolve and encourages others to attack, starting a cascade of dominoes+ The argument received a compelling game theoretic formulation in the solutions of Kreps and Wilson and Milgrom andRead MoreEthics and Politics6983 Words   |  28 PagesWhite House, the military, the media, and even portions of the public. The difficulty in the Challenger disaster was that different members of the coalition were in disagreement about how to balance technical and political concerns. These became increasingly salient as the enormously expensive shuttle program encountered one delay after another for safety-related t echnical reasons. At the time of the Challenger shuttle disaster, both Thiokol and NASA were under increasing pressure to produce on scheduleRead MoreEthics and Politics6991 Words   |  28 PagesWhite House, the military, the media, and even portions of the public. The difficulty in the Challenger disaster was that different members of the coalition were in disagreement about how to balance technical and political concerns. These became increasingly salient as the enormously expensive shuttle program encountered one delay after another for safety-related technical reasons. At the time of the Challenger shuttle disaster, both Thiokol and NASA were under increasing pressure to produce on scheduleRead MoreGeneral Electric60506 Words   |  243 Pagesstrategies of rivals. 6. Typically, a company’s strategic choices are based partly on trial-and-error organizational learning about what has worked and what has not, partly on management’s appetite for risk taking, and partly on managerial analysis and strategic thinking about how to best proceed, given all the prevailing circumstances. 7. Illustration Capsule 1.1, The Chief Elements of Southwest Airlines’ Strategy, offers a concrete example of the actions and approaches involved in craftingRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 PagesReasons ................................................................................................ 236 Deceiving with Loaded Language ................................................................................................... 238 Using Rhetorical Devices .................................................................................................................. 240 Review of Major Points .............................................................................................

Why Do Bad Things Happen - 1598 Words

Why Do Bad Things Happen to Good People? A Closer Look at the Theodicy Problem Throughout the study of many religions, we are taught that individual actions have a great impact on the outcomes throughout your life. If you live an evil life, you will encounter difficultly and strive, while the good are often rewarded in many different ways. This basic belief becomes complicated when bad things happen to good people. Why do we lose good people to violence and terror? Why would the family that takes care of the homeless have their home destroyed by fire? It does not make sense that people doing good things would be led to suffering, yet we know it happens. The term Theodicy was developed by Gottfried Liebniz (Leibniz, 1985) as a way to â€Å"reconcile belied in a just, benevolent, and omnipotent God with the grim reality of suffering† (Simko, 2012). While this is a good term, we must look deeper to gain more understanding of the reasons behind bad things happening to good people. Good people may face suffering as a part of God’s divine plan. Throughout time people have looked for greater meaning in the world, and one commonality through many of the major religions of the world is the belief that God has a divine plan. We will not always understand how or why we experience life differently, but social order is also a part of this divinity. †It has been common in the history of philosophy and politics to argue that reciprocal inequalities {à   la complementarities) among people livingShow MoreRelatedWhy Do Bad Things Happen?953 Words   |  4 PagesWhy do bad things happen to good people? Where does evil come from in the world? Depending on an individual’s faith, this question might be answered numerous ways. Each religion has their own bases as to why there is evil present, even questioning why a good God would allow suffering. There are four main theories that correlate depending on the religious teachings you believe in and why bad things happen to good people. It is human nature to try to figure out the world around us, and understandRead MoreWhy Do Bad Things Happen?1401 Words   |  6 PagesWhy Do Bad Things Happen to Good People? From a religious standpoint, this is one of the most difficult questions in all of Theology. The curious as well as the critics of Christianity ask this question. If God is all-powerful and all loving, then why does He permit evil and suffering in the world? Various answers have been given but permanently settling the issue is impossible because so many of our answers raise further inquiries. Nevertheless, our lack of ability to answer the question perfectlyRead MoreThe Problem Of Evil : Why Do Bad Things Happen?1152 Words   |  5 Pagessituations it has been seen throughout the world that society blames God for difficult moments. Society has questioned God â€Å"if he really existed why would he allow such evil things to happen†, now the question why do bad things happen to good people is one that I also question myself. There is no simple answer to the question, why do bad things happen to good people? In my opinion, there can be several reasons, for example, I believe evil may see good people as an easy target and takes advantageRead MoreEssay on Why do bad things happen to good people?1732 Words   |  7 PagesWhy do bad things happen to good people? There is one question that everyone asks but to which no one knows the answer: Why do bad things happen to good people? The misfortunes of good people raise problems not only for those who suffer, but also for everyone who wants to believe in a just and livable world and in a fair and compassionate God. Rabbi Kushner, author of Why Do Bad Things Happen To Good People, attempts to bring light to this difficult question. In doing so he evaluates pastRead MoreWhen Bad Things Happen to Good People Essay994 Words   |  4 PagesWhen Bad Things Happen to Good People When someone does something good, great, amazing; however it is said, a reward is expected. That’s just the way the human brain has been trained in many cultures. People think just that with every good deed that is done. Movies have taught us that the â€Å"bad guy† never wins and that a hero will always triumph in the end. Not so much in the real world. Religious views, daily decisions, and just pure coincidence, if you will, all influence the outcome of a goodRead MoreThe Story The Shack 1462 Words   |  6 Pageshow this could happen, why this would happen to his daughter. Ultimately he struggles with God, wanting to know why God would let his daughter be taken away in such a brutal murder. I have faced struggles and sadness in my life that made me cry out to God asking, â€Å"Lord, why did this happen? Where were you when I needed you?† The truth in fact is that God was there by my side every time. God did not want those bad things to happen but He was ther e for me to bring good out of those bad situations. IRead MoreBad Things Happen You Good People And Bad People Alike1405 Words   |  6 PagesBad things happen to good people and bad people alike. There is no such thing as God or Satan. The existence of evil proves that there can be no God. The things that occur in our universe are chance and can be explained by science. Enter humans and you have free will and free thinking which can lead to actions and consequences. Free will gives way to moral consequences. Bad things happen to people because it is part of a greater cosmic roll of the dice. We have evolved and become higher functioningRead MoreSummary Of The Lord Of The Flies 1297 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Then Jonah went out from the city and sat east of it. There he made a shelter for himself and sat under it in the shade until he could see what would happen in the city. So the Lord God appointed a plant and it grew up over Jonah to be a shade over his head to deliver him from his discomfort. And Jonah was extremely happy about the plant.But God appointed a worm when dawn came the next day and it attacked the plant and it withered. When the sun came up God appointed a scorching east wind, and theRead MoreThe Tragedy Of The 9 / 11 Attack On Our Nation1246 Words   |  5 PagesBeing a Christian we fail to understand sometimes why God allows bad things to happen to good people or bad things to happen in our life when all we are trying to do is live it the best we can. Or like that old saying goes â€Å"when it rains, it pours†. Why does evil exist in the first place if God created the world to be holy and sacred? Honestly we have all asked ourselves this question at least one in our life if not multiple times a week! This is considered a theodicy problem, and thereRead MoreWhy God Should Not Be Blamed On God1707 Words   |  7 PagesMany people throughout history have found themselves asking why evil exists. Or why, an all-powerful, omnipotent, omniscient, and morally perfect God allows evil into the world that he/she created. This question has brought about many answers and much debate between believers and non-believers. I have done a lot of reading on this dilemma and hope to address it through looking at a few key points. First, I want to address the question, what do we, as humans perceive as evil. To answer that question,

Ancient Chinese Inventions Free Essays

Ancient Chinese Inventions It is well known that China has an ancient and glorious history, from the feudal periods ending in 222 BC through the three Imperial and Intermediate Eras, up to the Modern era – over 4000 years of dynastic reigns. It may also be well known that China is the source of many wonderful and useful inventions from spaghetti to gunpowder. This list, however, will take a slightly different slant of the topic: Chinese inventions and developments that were not known to or adopted by the Western (European) world for many decades and sometimes centuries after they were common place in China. We will write a custom essay sample on Ancient Chinese Inventions or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some you may be familiar with, others perhaps less so. First on the list is Row Planting, which is from Feudal period through 6 century BC. The Chinese begin planting crops in rows sometime around 6 century BC. This allows the crops to grow stronger and a lot faster. It allows more efficient planting, weeding, harvesting and watering. There is also proof documented that they realized that when the wind travels over rows of plants it causes less damage to the crop. This development was not introduced in the western world for another 2200 years. A Chinese man by the name of Master Lu wrote in the â€Å"Spring and Autumn Annals†: If the crops are grown in rows they will mature rapidly because they will not interfere with each other’s growth. The vertical rows made for skill, the horizontal rows must be drawn well, for if the lines are straight the wind will pass gently through. Along with the above we have mechanical clock mechanisms. This was invented around 725 AD. This clock operated by dripping water that powered a wheel, which made one full revolution in 24 hours. A bronze and iron system of wheels and gears made the clock rotate. Accurate mechanical clocks were developed because of a belief in the form of astrology. This was based upon the moment of conception rather than the time of birth. In ancient years retainers would listen outside of royal bedrooms to record the possible times of conception of royal children. This event was important enough that considerable effort was devoted to developing accurate timing mechanisms. Next on the list would be the compass, which was developed around Feudal period through 4th cent BC. The Chinese developed a lodestone instrument to ndicate direction which is known as the compass. Upon development the compass were only south pointing and were primarily use for land as divination tools and direct finders. It was written that lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it. Spoons were used to point the direction, while mounted on plates. The spoons were made from lodestone, while the plates were of bronze. Later in year of 1040 thermo-remanence needles were produced for marin ers. The common use of this was recorded around year 1119. The thermo-remanence technology is still in use today. Then we have deep drilling, the Chinese invented a tool used for deep drilling boreholes. This was invented around circa 202 BC through 220 AD. It is listed that some of these boreholes would reach the depths of 4800 feet. This technology would be easily recognizable to a modern engineer. The Chinese would stack rocks with center holes which were tube or doughnut shaped from the surface to the deep stone layer as a guide for their drills. In the search for salt wells the Chinese developed a technology of driving bamboo poles deep into the earth. In addition to brine this drilling also often tapped into reservoirs of natural gas. The natural gas was captured in barrels and used as fuel to evaporate the water from brine to produce salt. They used the gas to boil sea water which separated the salt allowing it to become drinkable. The Chinese also invented gun powder; this was invented around 850 AD. An enterprising alchemist mixed 75 parts saltpeter with 15 parts charcoal and 10 parts sulfur. This mixture had no discernible life-lengthening properties, but it did explode with a flash and a bang when it was exposed to an open flame. What is noted in text from the era is that smoke and flames result so that hand and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down. Then we have something that is widely used and appreciated throughout countries, cities and societies, the commonly used paper. This was invented around 105 AD and was made from a suspension of hemp waste in water, washed, soaked and beaten with a wooden mallet. A paper mold, probably a sieve of coarsely woven cloth stretched in a four sided bamboo frame, was used to dip up the fiber slurry from the vat and hold it for drying. Initially it was used for clothing rather than writing material. It was used to make body armor for soldiers. Now we have the ancient Chinese great unique invention of porcelain, which was invented around 16 century BC. In very ancient times the Chinese discovered that with the right choice of clay and firing techniques pottery could be made so thin that is was translucent. Such porcelain became universally known as china. Last but definitely not lease we have the known Chinese invention of a fabric that is soft to the skin. This fabric is called silk, which was invented around 3000 BC. For more than two thousand years the Chinese kept the secret of silk altogether to themselves. It was the most zealously guarded secret in history. The Chinese discovered that the cocoons of silk worms could be unwound and the filaments used to weave an especially light strong and beautiful cloth. All of these inventions were invented by original everyday pioneers. The saying goes everyday people do extraordinary things. Out of all of these wonderful inventions that were discussed, the invention of silk, paper, row planting and the mechanical clock mechanism would be the choice of the most important. Let’s briefly go over the reasons why these four would be the most important inventions. The invention of silk has paved the way for centuries of fabric wearers. In the ancient years a person could distinguish who was royalty by the silk garment that was worn. Silk is 100% natural fabric and is healthy for your breathing due to the fact that silk is naturally hypoallergenic. The invention of row planting allowed more efficient growth of produce for farming which allowed more and better food to sell and to eat. The invention of the mechanical clock mechanism has evolved in time to be a much needed daily device called the clock. A clock is an instrument use to indicate, keep and coordinate time. A clock refers to any device for measuring and displaying time. This clock mechanism invention has involved into personal time keepers like a wrist watch, pocket watch etc. The invention of paper would be one of the best great inventions due to the fact that paper is used for everything in daily life. Paper was used to spread information that was on hand written letters. Paper is also used for drawings and painting. Not to mention that paper is used for books, newspaper and lets not forgot paper is used for making what we all love to spend money. Of all of the inventions listed above if there were one invention that would be listed as a must have invention would be the invention of paper. The invention of paper has evolved into the making of paper money. Paper money consists of 1, 5, 10, 20 dollar bills and etc. Money is something generally accepted as a medium of exchange, a unit of account or a store of value. The first advantage to having money is that fact that stuff costs money. If you want things you have to have money to pay for them. Vary rarely do people just give their stuff away, they want something for it and money is the universal trade item. You can trade money for almost anything in the world. If you want a lot of stuff you need to have a lot of money. We now know that we owe a whole lot to the ancient Chinese for inventing so many things that are of important value to our lives. Makes you wonder if they knew back then how important these inventions would become to be. References â€Å"About the Collection. † About the Collection. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. lt;http://www. ipst. gatech. edu/amp/collectiongt;. CHINESEA   INVENTIONS. † Chinese Inventions. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. lt;http://www. vhinkle. com/china/inventions. htmlgt;. â€Å"History of Silk. † History of Silk. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. lt;http://www. silk-road. com/artl/silkhistory. shtmlgt;. â€Å"Natural Gas Exploration. † Natural Gas Exploration. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. lt;http://www . explorations. org/natural_gas_exploration_cont. htmlgt;. â€Å"Origin of Chinese Porcelain. † Origin of Chinese Porcelain. N. p. , n. d. Web. 20 Aug. 2012. lt;http://www1. chinaculture. org/gb/en_artqa/2003-09/24/content_37884. htmgt;. How to cite Ancient Chinese Inventions, Papers

The Rule in Rylands and Flecther remains to be one of strict liabilty. Discuss free essay sample

â€Å"The Rule in Rylands v. Fletcher remains a tort of strict liability. The statement posed to us above is quite contentious, a statement which attracts diverse views from a number of different jurisdictions. The main question to consider here is whether the rule in Rylands v. Fletcher remains an independent tort of strict liability or whether there has been a move towards negligence and nuisance in recent years. There is a great emphasis placed on the rule of Rylands v. Fletcher for law students, however as noted by Lord Hoffman in Transco v.Stockport; â€Å"It is perhaps not surprising that counsel could not find a case since 1939-1945 war in which anyone had succeeded in a claim under the rule. It is hard to escape the conclusion that the intellectual effort devoted to the rule by judges and writers over many years has brought forth a mouse! †1 As mentioned above, a number of common law jurisdictions have diverse views on this issue. We will write a custom essay sample on The Rule in Rylands and Flecther remains to be one of strict liabilty. Discuss or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I shall discuss each separately throughout my answer. Firstly, in order to provide a fully comprehensive answer, I will discuss the facts of the case. The rule in Rylands v. Fletcher is a decision of the House of Lords which established a new area of tort law. According to Paul Ward; â€Å"it is a land associated tort which is considered to attract strict liability,†2 that is, it imposes liability for harm without having to prove negligence. Ward explicitly lays out that it is a tort that compromises of four elements; of accumulation of a natural thing, which if escapes and causes damage to the plaintiff, the defendant will be strictly liable. 3 The case concerned two adjacent landowners, Rylands and Fletcher. The defendant landowners, Rylands and Horrocks engaged with an independent contractor to build a reservoir in order to supply water to their mill. Due to negligence of the contractors and unbeknownst to the defendant landowners, the reservoir was built above a disused mine shaft, which flooded and collapsed causing water to escape and flood the neighbouring mine owned by the claimants. The plaintiff sued for damages, however a problem arose. At the time of the case, liability could not be based on any of the existing torts for a number of reasons. With respect to nuisance, the court found that the incident lacked continuity; it was not trespass because the flow of water onto land was not a direct impact consequence, and as vicarious liability was not an action at the time, the defendants could not be found liable for the negligent act of the contractor. One would therefore presume that there was no cause of action and that the defendants would escape liability, however liability was imposed. Professor Simpson stated that this was so because of the public anxiety about the safety of reservoirs at the time. 4 Blackburn J.stated the rule as follows; â€Å"a person who, for his own purposes, brought on his land and collected and kept there anything likely to do mischief if it escaped, had to keep it in his peril; and if he did not do so, he was prima facie answerable for all the damage which was the natural consequence of its escape. †5 However it is important to note that the House of Lords did add a further limitation on liability, they altered the notion of a â€Å"thing not naturally there† to a â€Å"non-natural use†, which was described by Lord Cairns as â€Å"that in its natural condition was not in or the land, then if it escapes, the defendant will be prima facie liable.†6 Blackburn, J. judgment was such that it led to the formulation of a new rule of strict liability for damage caused by an escape of something accumulated on a person’s property, if the accumulation is a non-natural use of property. The question today is; is this rule still in operation, one which remains a tort of strict liability? In particular, English, Irish and Australian judges have questioned the eligibility of the rule in recent decades. The main argument is over how one can keep the rule in Rylands v. Fletcher separate from other torts, in describing this Megaw, LJ.stated; â€Å"A regrettable modern instance of the forms of action successfully clanking their spectral chains. †7 The rule is so closely connected to these two torts, it is only natural to ask whether the rule should still claim its independence. I shall discuss this throughout my answer. In relation to Australian law, the rule of Rylands v. Fletcher remains no longer valid since the high court decision of Burnie Port Authority v. General Jones Pty Ltd, which abolished the rule and incorporated it generally into the tort of negligence. This case concerned a fire which started on a defendant’s property, caused by an employee of an independent contractor who was welding negligently. The fire spread to a nearby property causing 2. 5 million Australian Dollars’ worth of damage. The plaintiff sued under nuisance, negligence and the rule in Rylands v. Fletcher. 8 The High Court held that Blackburn’s justification was â€Å"all but obliterated by subsequent judicial explanations and qualifications†9 and that Rylands involved â€Å"quite unacceptable uncertainty. †10 Therefore, thejustices felt that the law should be abolished and that the independent contractor be found culpable under the law of negligence. The new test laid down in this judgment was; A person who takes advantage of his or her control of premises to introduce a dangerous substance or to carry on a dangerous activity, owes a duty of reasonable care to avoid a reasonably foreseeable risk of injury or damage to the person or property of another. Where the person is outside the defendant’s premises, the duty varies according to the magnitude of the risk involved.†11 The judges believed in this case the Authority had breached the duty that it owed to General Jones for the damage sustained in the fire and that this therefore came under the law of negligence. According to Cane, the High Court’s view was that the Rylands rule â€Å"should bow been seen†¦as absorbed by the principles of ordinary negligence, and not as an independent principle of strict liability. † 12 It is clear from my research that the rule remains valid law in English and Irish jurisdictions, but that it is now viewed as a sub-tort of nuisance. Cambridge Water v. Eastern Counties Leather and Transco v. Stockport are two English cases which bring the rule of Rylands v. Fletcher under the wing of nuisance. The former case concerns the defendant who was a leather manufacturer. His employees spilled a solvent used in the tanning process prior to a change in a method; this solvent seeped through the floor and travelled until it met the plaintiff’s water supply. The well became unusable, and hence the plaintiff sued under Rylands v. Fletcher. In his judgment, Lord Goff rejected the claim of the plaintiffs; stating that this is an area of law which should not be developed further and that rather than being an independent tort it should be considered as a sub tort of nuisance. 13 He was of the belief that statutory provisions are a more modern way of dealing with issues which were previously solved with reference to Rylands. This judgment added an important concept to the rule, which is the concept of foreseeability; â€Å"knowledge, or at least foreseeability of risk, is a prerequisite of the recovery of damages under the principle.†14 This is important for us to note as it poses a limitation on the rule, that now in order to impose strict liability, the damage cause by the escape must be reasonably foreseeable consequence of the escape of the defendant. In this particular case, the seepage of chemicals was not reasonably foreseeable and therefore the plaintiff could not recover. One may view this as a way of weanin g out the concept of strict liability; however this is a concept which would be difficult to argue. Transco v. Stockport is also an influential English case dealing with the rule of Rylands v. Fletcher, a judgment which once again questioned the eligibility of the rule as a tort of strict liability. This case concerned the defendant council who were responsible for the maintenance of pipe work which supplied water to a block of 66 flats. A leak developed in the pipes and this was left undetected for a considerable period of time. This water collected at the claimant’s high pressure gas main, the embankment collapsed leaving the gas main unsupported. The claimants took immediate action and sought to recover remedial costs of nearly ? 100,000. 15 While the Lordships protected the rule of Rylands v. Fletcher, however more strict requirements were added which needed to be accounted for before imposing strict liability. It was stated that the escape must be something dangerous and out of the ordinary, which in this case did not include a burst water pipe on the council’s property. Lord Bingham noted; â€Å"to retain the rule, while insisting upon its essential nature and purpose; and to restate it so as to achieve as much certainty and clarity as is attainable, recognising that new factual situations are bound to arise posing difficult questions on the boundary of the rule, wherever that is drawn.†16 Transco disapproved with of the Australian decision in Burnie Port Authority to absorb the rule into the general law of negligence, with Lord Scott stating that it was â€Å"a rather drastic solution and not necessary,†17 but they did agree with the ruling in Cambridge that Rylands should remain valid in law but as a â€Å"sub-species of nuisance†¦while insi sting upon its essential nature and purpose; and†¦restate it so as to achieve as much certainty and clarity as is attainable.†18 In the common law jurisdiction of the United States of America, the rule in Rylands v. Fletcher initially faced very little criticism. There are many situations in which strict liability is applied to actions and according to Woodside; Rylands is commonly cited as the origin of this rule. 19 However, there have also been a number of American judges and scholars who have given notable criticism of this rule, who view it as a very poor decision. The Supreme Court of New Hampshire, New Jersey and New York have all respectfully rejected the rule. Bohlen gives a great insight in his article, he notes of a decision of the Supreme Court of New Hampshire, where an unnamed judge said the rule â€Å"put a clog upon natural and reasonably necessary uses of matter and tend to embarrass and obstruct much of the work which it seems to be a man’s duty carefully to do. †20 These courts believed that the rule enunciated in Rylands v. Fletcher would cause economic harm. Bohlen also argues that the rule established is not trespass nor nuisance as there is respectfully no damage or no continuous action. He argues that the American jurisdiction never accepted the rule because of its â€Å"limited applicability. †21 On the other hand, Woodside notes that some Americans use the rule of Rylands v. Fletcher to justify absolute liability, an offence to which there is no defences. 22 This was never the intent of Lord Cairns in his judgement. Therefore it is very unclear as to whether the rule of Rylands v. Fletcher remains a tort of strict liability within the American jurisdiction. The Scottish jurisdiction, like Australia, has also abolished the ruling of Rylands v. Fletcher. The principles of Rylands v. Fletcher were first applied in Scots law in the case of Mackintosh v. Mackintosh, however according to Cameron; it was applied in such a way as that negligence was still the ground of liability. 23 However, the absolute use of the rule was abolished with the RHM Bakeries v. Strathclyde Regional Council when Lord Fraser stated that strict liability had no place in Scots law and that it was â€Å"a heresy that should be extirpated. †24 Finally I will make reference to New Zealand. The law regarding the rule of Rylands v. Fletcher remains unclear in this jurisdiction. A recent article by The Honourable Justice Chambers discusses the inter-relationship between the torts of nuisance, negligence and the ruling in Rylands v. Fletcher. The argued that there is a need for simplicity in the law of tort, â€Å"Where the law is clear, where the principles are clear, there are usually few cases†. 25 The recent Autex Industries Ltd v. Aucklands City Council case clearly illustrates how the law in New Zealand is unclear regarding this issue. A water main belonging to Auckland City Council burst and caused damage to Autex’ premises, plant, equipment and stock. Autex sued the council for damages. Strict liability and negligence were pleaded. Autex argued that this was a Rylands v. Fletcher case and therefore negligence did not need to be proved. 26 The Court of Appeal divided on their judgment; the majority believed that there was not sufficient evidence before them to make public policy decisions. These decisions should not be based on intuitivestatements, the consequences which flow from them should also be considered. 27 The minority on the other hand disagreed with the judgment in the Australian Burnie case. It is also important to note that in the Hamilton v. Papakura District Council case that it was established that there is no difference in the foreseeability test between nuisance and negligence. The Honourable Justice Chambers states; â€Å"The moment one states that as a proposition, one realises that it is absurd to continue talking about nuisance or Rylands v Fletcher as strict liability torts. They are not.†28 This leaves a question as to whether New Zealand will follow the court of Australia and abolish the rule in Rylands v. Fletcher or if the law will remain valid. With all the criticism posed above, can one still say that it is an area of strict liability? It is clear from the information which is presented in the above paragraphs that there is no clear answer as to whether the rule in Rylands v. Fletcher remains one of strict liability. Each common law jurisdiction appears to have different views on this rule. It is a contentious issue, an issue which is in need of worldwide reform.

Equality Diversity And Rights In Health Care Social Work Essay Essays

Equality Diversity And Rights In Health Care Social Work Essay Essays Equality Diversity And Rights In Health Care Social Work Essay Essay Equality Diversity And Rights In Health Care Social Work Essay Essay What is equality and diverseness? Although sometimes used interchangeably, the footings equality and diversity are non the same. Equality is about creating a fairer society, where everyone can take part and has the chance to carry through their possible ( DH, 2004 ) . It is about placing forms of experience based on group individuality, and the challenging processes that limit single s potential wellness and life opportunities. For illustration, occupational segregation. Womans make up about 75 % of the NHS work force but are concentrated in the lower-paid occupational countries: nursing, allied wellness professionals ( AHPs ) , administrative workers and accessory workers ( DH, 2005 ) . Peoples from black and minority cultural groups comprise 39.1 % of hospital medical staff yet they comprise merely 22.1 % of all infirmary medical advisers ( DH, 2005 ) . An equalities approach understands that our societal individuality in footings of gender, race, disablement, age, societal category, gender and faith will impact on our life experiences. Diversity literally means difference. When it is used as a contrast or add-on to equality, it is about recognizing single every bit good as group differences, handling people as persons, and puting positive value on diverseness in the community and in the work force. Historically, employers and services have ignored certain differences. However, single and group diverseness needs to be considered in order to guarantee that everybody s demands and demands are understood and responded to within employment pattern and service design and bringing. One manner in which administrations have responded to the issue of diverseness in recent old ages has been the development of flexibleness in working patterns and services. For illustration, an employer may let an employee to work a flexible working form to suit kid attention agreements, or a GP surgery may offer surgeries at the weekends in accommodate those who work full clip during the hebdomad. These attacks recognise that in order to be inclusive and equal to all, administrations may necessitate to react otherwise to individuals/groups. Therefore, a committedness to equality in add-on to acknowledgment of diverseness means that different can be equal. Learning results Understand constructs of equality, diverseness A ; rights in relation to Health and Social Care. Equality and diverseness is going more of import in all facets of our lives and work for a figure of grounds. We live in an progressively diverse society and demand to be able to react suitably and sensitively to this diverseness. Learners in the health care puting will reflect this diverseness around gender, race and ethnicity, disablement, faith, gender, category and age. Your administration believes that successful execution of equality and diverseness in all facets of work ensures that co-workers, staff and pupils are valued, motivated and treated reasonably. Every member of society is likely, at some point, to be a receiver of wellness and societal attention. The Department of Health can merely accomplish its purpose of better wellness, attention and wellbeing for all, by constructing an expressed committedness to equality, diverseness and human rights throughout the wellness and societal attention system. All public administrations including the Department of Health and public suppliers and commissioners of wellness and societal attention services have a responsibility to advance equality. Successfully presenting these responsibilities is a core portion of the wellness and societal attention system s nonsubjective to offer services that deliver high quality attention for all. To make this, the diverseness of the population has to be recognised, in policy development through to serve bringing and patient attention, admiting the diverse experiences, aspirations and demands of staff, patients and service. The Department of Health and local wellness and societal attention administrations continue to take proactive stairss to turn to unequal entree and results experienced by some subdivisions of the community. DH is working to guarantee the rules and practicalities of equity, equality, diverseness and human rights are a cardinal to the work of the Department. In 2007 the UK established a new individual equalities organic structure, to convey together the bing equality Committees covering with gender, disablement, and race and ethnicity into a Commission for Equality and Human Rights. The publicity and enforcement of equality and diverseness is one of the three responsibilities of the new organic structure. This paper briefly explores diverseness in relation to the theory of gender equality and besides examines developments in policy at the EU degree, which has provided much of the drift for alteration. Our focal point is on the policy attack and the tensenesss that the policy paperss reveal about the accent on equality and diverseness attack, in peculiar the extent to which attending to gender issues may acquire lost in the diverseness package, and the extent to which a focal point on the person may be strengthened over the group. This page lists some of the counsel stuffs produced by the former equality committees and counsel produced b y external administrations, who have given us permission to reproduce their stuffs on our site. Guidance from ACAS Age, Religion or Belief, Sexual orientation There are no statutory Codes in force covering sexual orientation, faith or belief, or age favoritism. However, ACAS has published counsel paperss covering each of these countries. The undermentioned ushers are besides available on the ACAS web site. Guidance from the EOC reding immature people The Equal Opportunities Commission produced counsel to assist advisors who work with immature people toA work outA whether they might hold experienced improper favoritism. The chief focal point was sex favoritism but other signifiers of favoritism are besides referred to. Young people need advice too.. Guidance from the TUC mental wellness issues TheA TUC produced counsel to aid merchandise brotherhood reps and functionaries provide a good service to members with mental wellness jobs. It aims to fit reps in workplaces with the information they need to cover every bit good with mental wellness issues as they do with the other issues that harvest up on day-to-day footing. Guidance from the Refugee Council employing refugees We have worked with theRefugee Council to bring forth counsel on using refugees. The counsel explains which paperss can supply grounds of entitlement to work. This counsel is aimed at employers but could be utile for advisors every bit good. Guidance from Advocacy Action Human rights toolkit for advocators Action for Advocacy, the independent protagonism administration has developed a toolkit based on an initial series of Commission-funded preparation yearss to advocators across England and Wales. The toolkit is a resource to advance farther thought and better usage of resources that can back up advocators to utilize human rights in their protagonism work. Understand discriminatory pattern in wellness and societal attention. Discrimination is less favourable or bad intervention of person because of one or more facets of their societal individuality. Understanding how favoritism can impact on persons lives is indispensable to forestall possible favoritism within in instruction and learning state of affairss and guarantee that you are confident in covering with favoritism issues if and when they arise. Our societal individuality comprises our: gender race or ethnicity gender faith or religion age category disablement. While we can confront favoritism because of any of these facets, it is of import that we besides identify the links between societal individualities and individualism and/or a province and state of affairs. Bad intervention can be multi-layered and occur because of: an facet of individualism, e.g. some facet of personal visual aspect, size, personal likes, etc. our state/situation, e.g. homelessness, being a lone parent, abuse of drugs or intoxicant, citizen position, wellness, etc. Valuing diverseness It is of import that you consider how an person s societal individuality may impact on their experience of the programme/teaching session of clinical activity in which the scholar is engaged. The ways in which favoritism works include pigeonholing, doing premises, patronizing, mortifying and disrespecting people, taking some people less earnestly. To guarantee that we value diverseness and see the person s individuality suitably in clinical instruction, the undermentioned rules may be utile: recognise that we need to handle all scholars as persons and respond to them, and their societal individuality, in an single mode understand that handling people reasonably does non intend handling people in the same manner we need to recognize difference and respond suitably regard all scholars irrespective of their societal individuality attempt to increase our cognition and apprehension of facets of societal individuality that may be different from our ain avoid stereotyping or doing premises about scholars based on their societal individuality recognise that some class content may impact on some scholars in a negative/difficult manner because of an facet of their societal individuality recognise that the class construction, e.g. timing of talks, unsociable hours, weekend working, and so on, may impact on some scholars more than others due to their societal individuality recognise that your ain societal individuality may impact on scholars in different ways avoid utilizing inappropriate and disrespectful linguistic communication associating to societal individuality Institutional favoritism Institutional favoritism is concerned with favoritism that has been incorporated into the constructions, procedures and processs of administrations, either because of bias or because of failure to take into history the peculiar demands of different societal individualities. Looking at the long historical position, there is a really cardinal development of how public establishments have dealt with the impression of anti-discrimination. Whereas the typical 19th century anti-discrimination agreements were developed for settling the instance of philosophical and spiritual minorities, modern-day statute law is confronting the challenge of turn toing new issues such as, for case, those raised by the monolithic in-migration of colonial and guest workers immigrants. If racial favoritism is among the most debatable signifiers of favoritism, it is far from being the lone 1. The battle against favoritism is an on-going procedure, which is now confronting the challenge of, non merely turn toing new societal worlds, but besides turn toing old 1s innovatively. The inclusion of disablement, sexual orientation and age as a footing for anti-discrimination battle reflects the experiencing that the jurisprudence must be adapted to procedures of societal alteration, which are marked today by an unprecedented diverseness in footings of life styles, cultural, cultural and spiritual backgrounds. Three characteristics distinguish institutional favoritism from other random single signifiers of bad intervention. Triggered by societal individuality the favoritism impacts on groups ( or persons because they are members of that group ) . Systematic it is built into: Torahs, regulations and ordinances. For illustration, choice standards for occupations or classs, Torahs such as the Minimum Wage, pension regularities, etc. the manner we do things round here , including the usage of authorization and discretion, e.g. how training chances are allocated, how flexibleness in larning patterns is authorised the popular civilization and ways of depicting normality , e.g. long on the job hours culture/expectations. Consequences in forms incidents of favoritism may look stray or random but where institutional favoritism occurs they are portion of a wider form of events which frequently may be hidden. Forms of favoritism can frequently be surfaced by effectual organisational information associating to societal individuality. For illustration: aˆ? which groups of people get promoted in an organisation? aˆ? which groups of people get accepted onto a preparation class? aˆ? which groups of people leave an organisation after six months of employment? Questions such as this may indicate to some people sing the organisation in a different/more negative manner than others. Understand how National initiatives promotes anti-discriminatory practise in Health instruction and Social attention. The construct of favoritism adopted in the statute law derived from Article 13 is inspired by the EU statute law on the equality of intervention between work forces and women.5 Equality of intervention is defined as the absence of any direct or indirect favoritism. By direct favoritism, The same papers defines indirect favoritism as follows: indirect favoritism shall be taken to happen where an seemingly impersonal proviso, standard or pattern is apt to impact adversely a individual or individuals to whom any of the evidences referred to in Article 17 applies, unless that proviso, standard or pattern is objectively justified by a legitimate purpose and the agencies of accomplishing it are appropriate and necessary Harassment is besides considered a favoritism in its ain right. Harassment is any signifier of action that creates a disturbing, intimidating, violative or hostile working environment, such as verbal maltreatments and gestures. As in the equality of intervention between work forces and adult females statute law, the two anti-discrimination directives following Article 13 topographic point the load of cogent evidence on the suspect in instance of legal action. Discrimination can go on in many different ways but you have rights to protect you By jurisprudence people are protected from favoritism on the evidences of: race sex sexual orientation disablement ( or because of something connected with your disablement ) faith or belief being a transsexual individual holding merely had a babe or being pregnantA being married or in a civil partnership ( this applies merely at work or if person is being trained for work ) age ( this applies merely at work or if person is being trained for work ) These are known as protected features . Race favoritism Wherever you were born, wherever your parents came from, whatever the coloring material of your tegument, you have a right to be treated reasonably. Gender equality sex favoritism Womans and work forces should non be treated below the belt because of their gender, because they are married or because they are raising a household. Sexual orientation Whether you are cheery, sapphic, bisexual or consecutive should non set you at a disadvantage. Disability favoritism If you have a physical or mental damage you have specific rights that protect you against favoritism. Religion and belief Your faith or belief, or those of person else, should non impact your right to be treated reasonably. This could be at work, school, in stores or while utilizing public services like wellness attention. Transgender favoritism Trans people should be able to populate with self-respect. There are protections for some of the signifiers of favoritism that trans people experience. Age equality By jurisprudence you can non be treated less favorably in your workplace or in preparation for work because of your age. For illustration, it would be improper to non use person because of their age. The EU impression of anti-discrimination offers a minimum criterion of legal protection, non an extended and unvarying 1. This means that some states will stay more advanced than others in their battle against favoritism even after the execution of the two directives. The statute law besides suggests that equality of intervention is expected to ensue from battling discrimination.8 It does non ordain a positive responsibility on public and private governments to advance positive action or equal chances policies. In this regard, one suspects that this absence will in the long tally be felt as a major defect. Lessons from both the position of gender surveies and from cultural and racial surveies have taught that a thin impression of equality of intervention is far from being a promise of equality. Human rights Human rights are the basic rights and rules that belong to every individual in the universe. They are based on the nucleus rules of self-respect, equity, equality, regard and liberty ( E and HRC, 2008 ) . Human rights protect an person s freedom to command their daily life, and efficaciously take part in all facets of public life in a just and equal manner. Human rights aid persons to boom and accomplish possible through: being safe and protected from injury being treated reasonably and with self-respect being able to populate the life you choose taking an active portion in your community and wider society ( E and HRC, 2008 ) . Intrinsic to these statements should be the rules of equality and diverseness. Since 1998 the UK has besides included human rights within its legal model. The Human Rights Act applies to all public governments and organic structures executing a public map. The Human Rights Acts places the undermentioned duty on your administration. Administrations must advance and protect persons homo rights. This means handling people reasonably, with self-respect and regard while safeguarding the rights of the wider community. Administrations should use core homo rights values, such as equality, self-respect, privateness, regard and engagement, to all organizational service planning and determination devising. The Human Rights Act provides a complementary legal model to the anti-discriminatory model and the public responsibilities. The legal context As a clinical instructor you will desire to guarantee that you understand the legal model sing equality, and that you can associate this model to your mundane function. The UK model has two elements to it: the anti- discriminatory model ( which gives persons a path to raise ailments of favoritism around employment and service bringing ) and the public responsibilities ( which place a proactive responsibility on administrations to turn to institutional favoritism ) . Overview of anti-discriminatory model Sex Discrimination Act 1975 Race Relations Act 1976 Disability Discrimination Act 1995 Employment Equality ( Sexual Orientation ) and ( Religious Belief ) Regulations 2003 Employment Equality ( Age ) Regulations 2006 Equality Act 2006 ( screens service bringing in relation to sexual orientation and spiritual belief ) It is of import to observe that at the current clip, age statute law merely protects persons in the country of employment and non serve bringing. The SEN and Disability Act 2001 The SEN and Disability Act 2001 extended the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 to education with consequence from September 2002. This act requires instructors to research the proviso of sensible accommodations for pupils who may hold disablements, including larning disablements, to enable them to take part efficaciously. The EU took great attention to avoid national and EU anti-discrimination commissariats going concurrent. The solution introduced for work outing this hard inquiry was to follow the most appropriate technique of statute law. By taking the directive, the EU has in consequence opted for flexibleness. The Directive, contrary to the ordinance, offers Member States general guidelines, which should be implemented within two old ages after the acceptance of the two directives. The anti-discrimination bundle proposed by the Commission and subsequently adopted by the Council of Ministers defines minimum common criterion of legal protection for victims of favoritism, without bias of what the Member States already have on offer in their internal legal order . It is peculiarly important for the success of the statute law that Member States take the EU enterprise as a motive for upgrading their internal criterion of protection and non as a justification for take downing them. This is why the two directives contain a non-regression clause which will in pattern lead to better statute law in all Member States. Another ground why EU statute law should be seen as complementing national enterprises is the stuff range of the Article 13. As indicated above, the domain of competency of the EU in the country of anti-discrimination is restrictively defined by the Treaty on the European Union. The chief country where it will be relevant to believe in footings of Article 13 is the labour market. Therefore, there is a whole scope of countries of possible favoritism where the function of the Member States will stay aboriginal. Know how anti-discriminatory pattern is promoted in Health A ; Social Care puting Active publicity of anti-discriminatory pattern: ethical rules ; seting the patient/service user at the bosom of service proviso, eg supplying active support consistent with the beliefs, civilization and penchants of the person, back uping persons to show their demands and penchants, authorising persons, advancing persons rights, picks and wellbeing ; equilibrating single rights with the rights of others ; covering with struggles ; placing and disputing favoritism Personal beliefs and value systems: influences on, eg civilization, beliefs, past events, socialization, environmental influences, wellness and well-being ; developing greater self-awareness and tolerance of differences ; perpetrating to the attention value base ; careful usage of linguistic communication ; working within legal, ethical and policy guidelines. Beliefs are the premises we make about ourselves, about others in the universe and about how we expect things to be. Beliefs are about how we think things truly are, what we think is truly true and what hence expect as likely effects that will follow from our behaviour. Since the last comprehensive reappraisal in 1974, the Health Belief Model ( HBM ) has continued to be the focal point of considerable theoretical and research attending. This article presents a critical reappraisal of 29 HBM-related probes published during the period 1974-1984, tabulates the findings from 17 surveies conducted prior to 1974, and provides a sum-up of the entire 46 HBM surveies ( 18 prospective, 28 retrospective ) . Twenty-four surveies examined preventive-health be haviors ( PHB ) , 19 explored sick-role behaviours ( SRB ) , and three addressed clinic use. A significance ratio was constructed which divides the figure of positive, statistically- important findings for an HBM dimension by the entire figure of surveies describing significance degrees for that dimension. Drumhead consequences provide significant empirical support for the HBM, with findings from prospective surveies at least every bit favourable as those obtained from retrospective research. Perceived barriers proved to be the most powerful of the HBM dimensions across the assorted survey designs and behaviours. While both were of import overall, perceived sus ceptibility was a stronger subscriber to understanding PHB than SRB, while the contrary was true for sensed benefits. Perceived badness produced the lowest overall significance ratios ; nevertheless, while merely weakly associated with PHB, this dimension was strongly related to SRB. On the footing of the grounds compiled, it is recommended that consideration of HBM dimensions be a portion of wellness instruction scheduling. Suggestions are offered for farther research. It is of import for attention workers to advance equality, value diverseness and esteem the rights of service users. There are assorted ways of how they can dispute prejudiced issues and patterns in wellness and societal attention. One of the ways in which attention worker can advance equality, value diverseness and esteem the rights of service users is to ever set the patient/service user at the bosom of the service proviso. This means that the patients single demands will be met and achieved Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every individual in the universe. Ideas about human rights have evolved over many centuries. But they achieved strong international support following the Holocaust and World War II. To protect future coevalss from a repetition of these horrors, the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. For the first clip, the Universal Declaration set out the cardinal rights and freedoms shared by all human existences. These rights and freedoms based on nucleus rules like self-respect, equality and regard inspired a scope of international and regional human rights pacts. For illustration, they formed the footing for the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950. The European Convention protects the human rights of people in states that belong to the Council of Europe. This includes the United Kingdom. Until late, people in the United Kingdom had to kick to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg if they felt their rights under the European Convention had been breached. for illustration ; a personal feeding program to a specific person. Puting the service user at the Centre of the proviso by and large makes a happier and healthier patient in all countries. Care workers can assist accomplish this by: * Understanding what it is like to utilize those services * Involving those who use the services Another illustration can be quoted as, Rights of one patient will collide with the rights of another A patient has the right to watch Television or listen to the wireless, while the patient in the following bed has the right the right to an undisturbed sleep the rights of these two patients clash. By supplying earpieces could assist decide this. If patients portion a room one wants the door propped unfastened and the other 1 does nt although this is a clang of rights the rights of the patient who wanted the door closed would outweigh the other as shore uping unfastened doors is a fire hazard Care scenes must supply services in such a manner that all service users get equal benefit for them. For illustration a individual who does non hold English as their first linguistic communication may necessitate a transcriber in order to understand the services available and to show a pick about them. One of the most good ways in which a societal attention puting can dispute anti discriminatory is through staff development and preparation this may be done officially through supervising Sessionss or more informally in the class of twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours working. The director should oversee the work of their staff, offer advice and counsel in hard state of affairss and assist the workers identify developing chances to better their practise.A

A Guide to the Origins and Celebration of Kwanzaa

A Guide to the Origins and Celebration of Kwanzaa Unlike Christmas, Ramadan, or Hanukkah, Kwanzaa is unaffiliated with a major religion. One of the newer American holidays, Kwanzaa originated in the turbulent 1960s to instill racial pride and unity in the black community. Now, fully recognized in mainstream America, Kwanzaa is widely celebrated. The U.S. Postal Service debuted its first Kwanzaa stamp in 1997, releasing a second commemorative stamp in 2004. In addition, former U.S. presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush recognized the day while in office. But Kwanzaa has its share of critics, despite its mainstream status. Are you considering celebrating Kwanzaa this year? Discover the arguments for and against it, whether all blacks (and any non-blacks) celebrate it and the impact of Kwanzaa on American culture. What Is Kwanzaa? Established in 1966 by the African-American professor, activist and author Ron Karenga (or Maulana Karenga), Kwanzaa aims to reconnect black Americans to their African roots and recognize their struggles as a people by building community. It is observed every year between Dec. 26 and Jan. 1. Derived from the Swahili term, â€Å"matunda ya kwanza,† which means â€Å"first-fruits,† Kwanzaa is based on African harvest celebrations such as the seven-day Umkhost of Zululand. According to the official Kwanzaa website, â€Å"Kwanzaa was created out of the philosophy of Kawaida, which is a cultural nationalist philosophy that argues that the key challenge in black people’s [lives] is the challenge of culture, and that what Africans must do is to discover and bring forth the best of their culture, both ancient and current, and use it as a foundation to bring into being models of human excellence and possibilities to enrich and expand our lives.† Just as many African harvest celebrations run for seven days, Kwanzaa has seven principles known as the Nguzo Saba. They are: umoja (unity); kujichagulia (self-determination); ujima (collective work and responsibility); ujamaa (cooperative economics); nia (purpose); kuumba (creativity); and imani (faith). Celebrating Kwanzaa During Kwanzaa celebrations, a mkeka (straw mat) rests on a table covered by kente cloth, or another African fabric. On top of the mkeka sits a kinara (candleholder) in which the mishumaa saba (seven candles) go. The colors of Kwanzaa are black for the people, red for their struggle, and green for the future and hope that comes from their struggle, according to the official Kwanzaa website. Mazao (crops) and the kikombe cha umoja (the unity cup) also sit on the mkeka. The unity cup is used to pour tambiko (libation) in remembrance of ancestors. Lastly, African art objects and books about the life and culture of African people sit on the mat to symbolize commitment to heritage and learning. Do All Blacks Observe Kwanzaa? Although Kwanzaa celebrates African roots and culture, the National Retail Foundation found that just 13 percent of African Americans observe the holiday, or approximately 4.7 million. Some blacks have made a conscious decision to avoid the day because of religious beliefs, the origins of the day and the history of Kwanzaa’s founder (all of which will be covered later). If you’re curious about whether a black person in your life observes Kwanzaa because you want to get him or her a related card, gift, or another item, simply ask. Don’t make assumptions. Can Non-Blacks Celebrate Kwanzaa? While Kwanzaa focuses on the black community and African Diaspora, people from other racial groups may join in the celebration. Just as people from a range of backgrounds partake in cultural celebrations such as Cinco de Mayo, Chinese New Year or Native American powwows, those who aren’t of African descent may celebrate Kwanzaa. As the Kwanzaa Web site explains, â€Å"The principles of Kwanzaa and the message of Kwanzaa has a universal message for all people of good will. It is rooted in African culture, and we speak as Africans must speak, not just to ourselves, but to the world.† New York Times  reporter Sewell Chan grew up celebrating the day. â€Å"As a child growing up in Queens, I remember attending Kwanzaa celebrations at the American Museum of Natural History with relatives and friends who, like me, were Chinese-American,† he  said. â€Å"The holiday seemed fun and inclusive (and, I admit, a bit exotic), and I eagerly committed to memory the Nguzo Saba, or seven principles†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Check local newspaper listings, black churches, cultural centers or museums to find out where to celebrate Kwanzaa in your community. If an acquaintance of yours celebrates Kwanzaa, ask for permission to attend a celebration with her. However, it would be offensive to go as a voyeur who doesn’t care about the day itself but is curious to see what it’s about. Go because you agree with the principles of the day and are committed to implementing them in your own life and community. After all, Kwanzaa is a day of tremendous significance for millions of people. Objections to Kwanzaa Who opposes Kwanzaa? Certain Christian groups who regard the holiday as pagan, individuals who question its authenticity and those who object to founder Ron Karenga’s personal history. A group called the Brotherhood Organization of a New Destiny (BOND), for one, labeled the holiday as racist and anti-Christian. In an article in the self-avowed right-wing anti-muslim magazine FrontPage, BOND founder the Rev. Jesse Lee Peterson takes issue with the trend of preachers incorporating Kwanzaa into their messages, calling the move â€Å"a horrible mistake† which distances blacks from Christmas. â€Å"First of all, as we’ve seen, the whole holiday is made up,† Peterson argues. â€Å"Christians who celebrate or incorporate Kwanzaa are moving their attention away from Christmas, the birth of our Savior, and the simple message of salvation: love for God through his Son.† The Kwanzaa Web site explains that Kwanzaa isn’t religious or designed to replace religious holidays. â€Å"Africans of all faiths can and do celebrate Kwanzaa, i.e., Muslims, Christians, Jews, Buddhists†¦,† the site says. â€Å"For what Kwanzaa offers is not an alternative to their religion or faith but a common ground of African culture which they all share and cherish.† African Roots? and a Troubled Founder Even those who don’t oppose Kwanzaa on religious grounds may take issue with it because Kwanzaa is not an actual holiday in Africa and, furthermore, the customs founder Ron Karenga based the holiday on roots in Eastern Africa. During the  transatlantic slave trade, however, blacks were taken from Western Africa, meaning that Kwanzaa and its  Swahili  terminology aren’t part of most African Americans’ heritage. Another reason people choose not to observe Kwanzaa is the background of Ron Karenga. In the 1970s, Karenga was  convicted  of felony assault and false imprisonment. Two black women from the Organization Us, a black nationalist group with which he’s still affiliated, were reportedly victimized during the attack. Critics question how Karenga can be an advocate for unity within the black community when he himself was allegedly involved in an attack on black women. Wrapping Up While Kwanzaa and its founder are sometimes subject to criticism, journalists such as Afi-Odelia E. Scruggs celebrate the holiday because they believe in the principles it espouses. In particular, the values Kwanzaa gives to children and to the black community at large are why Scruggs observes the day. Initially, Scruggs thought Kwanzaa was contrived, but seeing its principles at work changed her mind. In a  Washington Post  column, she wrote, â€Å"I’ve seen Kwanzaa’s ethical principles work in many little ways. When I remind the fifth-graders I teach that they aren’t practicing ‘umoja’ when they disturb their friends, they quiet down. †¦When I see neighbors turning vacant lots into community gardens, I’m watching a practical application of both ‘nia’ and ‘kuumba.’† In short, while Kwanzaa has inconsistencies and its founder a troubled history, the holiday aims to unify and uplift those who observe it. Like other holidays, Kwanzaa can be used as a positive force in the community. Some believe this outweighs any concerns about authenticity.

Are the Council of Ministers and the European Commission Essay

Are the Council of Ministers and the European Commission interdependent or competing institutions - Essay Example These institutions are responsible for the formation of public policy after series of arguments and discussions among the members and it is true that they consider the interest of the Union rather than that of member states while making important decisions and therefore assumes a higher degree of independence. The unique institutional structure of the European Union sets it apart from other traditional institutions as the entire member states have agreed to focus more on the national interest. Each of these institutions has a unique role to play in the decision making process by complementing each other. This paper is an attempt to analyse the importance and interdependence of the Council of Ministers and the European Commission. The council of ministers The most prominent among all the institutions of European Union is the Council of Ministers which instigated to draw more attention after the integration of European Community. According to Alex Warleigh, â€Å"the council of minist ers is the collective noun for the member state representatives who meet to take final decision on all EU legislative proposals† (Warleigh, p.26). ... On the other hand there are experts who consider the Council as an obstruction to the political incorporation which always hinder the innovative ideas suggested by the Commission and the Parliament. But the true fact is that the Council protects the people of the EU from profligate European proposals and also controls the powerful politicians from the member states and direct their state oriented discussions towards a shared and expanding policy agenda (Warleigh, p.1). The structure The council of ministers which encompasses one minister from each member states of the EU meets frequently in Brussels or in Luxembourg in order to make legislative decisions. EU nations choose the appropriate minister to represent them in the Council according to the subject under consideration. Each member nation holds the presidency for a period of six months which rotates among them. The Committee of Permanent Representatives which is also known as COREPER and the general secretariat prepare most of t he work to be done by the Council. COREPER consists of officials from different governments of the member states. Decisions of the Council are made on the basis of vote and the population of each state is the factor which determines the weight of its vote (Pearson Education, publishing, 2011). It is comparatively an easy task to identify the institutions of a member state where the legislative and executive powers are easily distinguishable. But in the case of European Union such a distinction is hard to make as the executive powers are shared between the Commission and the Council and the legislative powers between the Council and the Parliament and therefore the Council of Ministers possess both the executive and legislative functions.

Intercultural public relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Intercultural public relations - Essay Example This has forced the field of public relation to device ways on how to deal with this problem and several theories or ways have been formed as guidelines on dealing with the issue of intercultural public relations1. This paper will try to look into detail how the intercultural public relation problem has been addressed by different theories and how these theories differ and their similarities, it will look at the importance of studying intercultural public relations. One of the theories of intercultural public relations is the cross-cultural adaptation that was brought forward by Robert Park, in this model he identified four steps in this theory that people have to undergo. The first step is the contact step where the individual is exposed to another culture; this is followed by competition where the two different cultures compete against each other. Thirdly, this is where the less dominant culture learns to accommodate the cultural aspects of the dominant one and finally he is assimi lated into the group and he learns to assimilate other members. One of the theories under this is epistemology where an individual acquires communicational skills from the dominant culture and his own way of thinking is transformed in to that of the host2. In another dimension, the public influence model that is mainly practised in countries that are hierarchical in nature such as India and in Africa, however in other countries such as the United States of America it is practised in minimal levels. In this case, public relation is not with respect to the larger community or a group, rather it is with people of a higher social class or those with influence. This is where people with more personal influence are likely to achieve their goals or higher levels of success. Dialogic method is another way in which intercultural public relations can be viewed; this is where the organisation and the public that it is addressing are viewed as equal partners. In this model, all people are broug ht on board in the decisions of the organisation. As the name suggests, it involves dialogue between an organisation and the public without bias or prejudice and it appreciates the opinions and personal worth of every stakeholder of the organisation. This method involves admitting when one party is wrong, empathising and allowing the decisions made collectively to change the way things are done, it aims at building strong and long lasting relationships in the process of doing business. In working with this model a lot of interpersonal and intercultural communication skills are required and a genuine concern for people and it is not dictated by pre mediated rules and regulations. Due to the diversity of individual and stakeholder in different sectors, understanding of their varied and different cultural backgrounds helps in knowing how to deal with them. Genre approach to intercultural public relations in this case helps public relation researcher or theorist to understand the variou s cultural backgrounds and communication styles and not merely trying to feed information that an organisation wants the public to know3. An intercultural public relation expert should engage in six activities that include identifying the special characteristics of the situation or culture, identifying the intended effects on the audience, clarifying the motivational intention of the organisatio

Use of Wood as a Building Material

Use of Wood as a Building Material Wood is quite unique when compared to most building materials used today given that its material makeup is a result of naturally grown biological tissue (ill.18). Thus, the material makeup and structure of wood is significantly different than that of most industrially produced, isotropic materials. Upon close examination, wood can be described as an anisotropic natural fiber composite. In contrast to isotropy, which constitutes identical properties in all directions of a material, anisotropy concerns the property of being directionally dependent. For instance, one can see this in the way that wood can bend easily in the tangential axis (ill.19) which is the direction perpendicular to its grain direction. When examining wood from any given angle, one can identify material characteristics and behaviours specific to that angle, relative to the material’s main grain orientation. That is to say, should one examine the material properties of wood at an angle 45 degrees to the main g rain orientation, one will discover properties extremely different than those obtained from an angle 90 degrees to the main grain orientation. The directionally dependent property of wood is a result of the horizontal or vertical orientation of the individual cells and the arrangements of growth layers in a tree.[1] Throughout architectural history, this inherent heterogeneity of wood as well as its complex material characteristics have often been characterized as deficiencies by architects, engineers and members of the timber industry.[2] This can be traced to the fact that most designs and construction methodologies used today require the use of materials bearing minimal variations in their properties and behaviours in order to satisfy the need for isotropic structures. In contrast, this thesis views wood’s complex material makeup and its capacities as significant advantages rather than deficiencies. Furthermore, it aims to understand these interesting characteristics of wood and employ them through an informed design process. In addition to these complex material properties, wood also presents many favorable characteristics including diversity, weight, strength, appearance, workability, cost and availability. Another factor that makes wood a very appealing material today concerns its overall ecological advantages. In light of the environmental challenges that the built environment is facing today, it is becoming increasingly recognized that very few building materials can rival woods environmental benefits. Wood is a natural, renewable material that holds a very low level of embodied energy. It is known for its ability to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by storing CO2 and also by substituting for materials with a high carbon content[3]. In this manner, the use of wood actually produces a positive carbon footprint.[4] Wood is also an extremely energy efficient building material in its production. For example, wood requires 50 times less energy in its manufacturing than steel to ensure a given structural st iffness as a whole.[5] Unlike many natural resources, forests consist of a renewable resource. With careful forest management, one can ensure that forests thrive and continue to provide the many benefits to which we have become accustomed. Foresters can calculate an allowable cut of trees per year for any given forest area that will secure a stable harvest. Tree farming is yet another way of sustainably satisfying todays demand for wood. Programs at Oak Ridge National Laboratory have engineered a breed of super trees that can grow at rapid speeds in order to create a substantial amount of bio mass in a single given acre. These engineered trees are being farmed at tree farms such as the Boardman Tree Farm LLC, and are redefining modern forestry (ill.20). The Boardman Tree Farm plantations are located in eastern Oregon, United States, where dry desert land has been transformed into a thirty thousand acre farm. This plantation currently has seventy million trees and is capable of producing half a million tree s every year to satisfy demands. The plantation harvests five acres of trees every day in order to maintain this continuous cycle.[6] As a result of woods naturally-grown origin, its unique material composition accounts for most of its properties and characteristics.[7] The aim of the thesis is to explore some of the potential ways of utilizing the material properties and specific material characteristics of wood in the design field. In order to do so, the heterogeneous structure of wood must first be understood in greater detail. Wood can be defined as a low-density, cellular, composite material and as such, does not readily fall into a single class of material, but rather overlaps a number of classes. In terms of its high strength performance and affordability, timber remains the worlds most successful fiber composite. On the microscopic scale, one can describe wood as a natural fiber composite.[8] (Ill.21) Wood cells are comprised of layers, upon which cellulose microfibrils function like fibers embedded in a matrix of lignin and hemicelluloses, reinforcing the assembly as a whole. Due to this makeup at the microscopic level, wood shares a number of properties with materials like: synthetic composites, reinforced plastics, fiberglass, and carbon fiber. Similar to wood, these materials are characterized with relatively low stiffness in combination with relatively high structural capacity. In other words, wood contains innate elastic properties especially well-suited for construction methods that seek to employ elasticity in achieving complex lightweight structures from initially planar elements. What follows is intended as a brief overview of the material composition of wood. Understanding the anatomical aspects of wood is imperative to the research and investigations that have been conducted. In contrast to building materials that are specifically designed and manufactured to suit the needs of an architect or an engineer, wood is a result of the biological tissue functions that take place in a tree. Although there exists a wide variety of species of trees in the world, all trees, despite their diversity, share certain characteristics. Trees are all vascular and perennial which means they are capable of adding yearly growth to previously grown wood. The growth process of a tree occurs in the cambium, a thin layer of living cells between the bark of the tree and the inner stem structure. (Ill.22) Cambial cells have thin walls and divide themselves lengthwise to grow into two new cells. Following the cell division, one of the two cells enlarges to become another cambial mother cell while the other either matures into a bark cell or forms towards the inside of the cambium to become a new wood cell. When the primary wood cells reach maturity and develop into their mature size, a secondary wall is constructed from long chain hemicellulose and cellulose molecules. The long chains of cellulose molecules are oriented in a direction parallel to the long axis of the cells and reinforced by lignin (ill.23). Lignin is an integral part of the woods cellulous structure because it provides support for the cells. It is also the material that gives rigidity to plants.[9] The distribution and orientation of the cells along with the material structure of the cell walls determine most of the resulting characteristics and properties of wood.[10] Trees are characterized into two types: softwoods and hardwoods (ill.24). The terms ‘softwood’ and ‘hardwood’ do not signify softness or hardness of wood. The two terminologies are related to the botany of the species and to the way in which a tree grows. The differences between the two types of wood can be seen in the cellular structure of the materials. In the relatively simple cellular structure of softwood, nine tenths of the wood volume consists of one cell type called tracheid, while the remainder consist of ray tissues. Tracheids are fiber-like cells and have a length-to-width ratio of 100:1, meaning that they are approximately one hundred times longer than they are wide. The tracheid cells are arranged parallel to the stem axis located in the radial layers of the tree and are responsible for the transport of water and minerals throughout the tree. In contrast, a much greater variety of cell types and arrangement configurations are present in hardwoods. In addition to tracheids, hardwoods also contain vessels, rays and fiber cells. Vessel elements in hardwood have a large diameter and thin walls, containing no end-to-end walls. As a result, they are arranged in an end-to-end formation that is parallel to the stem axis of the tree, forming continuous channels that carry sap through the tree. Unlike vessels, fiber cells are much smaller in diameter and have thicker cell walls and possess closed tapered ends (ill.25). In both softwood and hardwood, the structure, distribution and orientation of cells are the determining factors of the anisotropic, structural, and hygroscopic characteristics of wood.[11] The anisotropic and hygroscopic characteristics of wood resulting from its internal cellular structure have traditionally been regarded as problematic in the practices of architecture and structural engineering, especially when compared to more homogeneous, stable, industrially produced isotropic materials like steel, plastic or glass. In design approaches within architecture, engineering and timber industries, knowledge of wood’s material composition and characteristics has mostly been employed to counterbalance its complex material behaviours.[12] For instance, the development of engineered industrial wood products (ex: MDF, or cross-laminated-timber) came as a response to the heterogeneous composition of wood. These wood products are capable of producing a material that is much more homogenous and which provides isotropic material characteristics. Unfortunately, the design opportunities that could be made possible using the innate heterogeneous characteristics of wood are too often overlooked in todays construction projects. In fact, particularly in North America, the construction material of wood is often no longer referred to as such. Instead, wood is referred to as a dimensional building element, such as a ‘24’. The aim of this research is to propose an alternative approach to design which views wood’s complex material composition and related behaviours as advantageous rather than problematic. Such an integrated design approach can perhaps contribute towards a renewed appreciation for the behavioral capacities of wood and the rich design opportunities that can be realized thanks to the natural anatomy of this material. Three-ply plywood and veneer are unmistakably industrially-produced materials. However, unlike other industrially-produced materials such as steel, glass, plastic, MDF or particle board, three-ply plywood and veneer are anisotropic materials. This signifies that the properties and behaviours of these materials vary significantly in relation to the fiber direction. For example, veneer and plywood encounter considerable differences in stiffness depending on the grain direction. The compressive strength of wood differs significantly depending on grain direction, as do most of its other mechanical and material properties. The following section details the manufacturing process of veneer and plywood in order to better understand the material exploration that will be presented in Chapter 3. Plywood may appear to be a relatively new industrially-produced wood product, however its concept is in fact very old and can be traced back to more than 5,000 years. Before the word â€Å"plywood† was invented in the 1920s, the process was referred to as veneering. One of the earliest traces of plywood was found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun, an Egyptian Pharaoh who ruled around the year 1334 BC. The discovered pieces of plywood were remains of coffins made of six layers of wood, each 4mm thick and held together by glue and wooden pegs.[13] The plywood remains were fabricated using the same fundamental techniques as today. Like modern plywood, the grains of the layers where arranged perpendicularly with each layer for strength[14] (ill.26). From this period onwards, veneering techniques became increasingly widespread throughout the world. Thanks to the development of tools and technology over the years, veneer thicknesses were reduced and new adhesives (ex: glue made from b one, sinew and cartilage) were used to bond the layers together with heat.[15] Although plywood is made much in the same way today, modernized adhesion techniques and tools used in its production have improved significantly, making it one of the most affordable and easily-produced building materials. Both hardwoods and softwoods are used in the production of plywood. The typical sequence of operation involved in the production of plywood is as follows: There exists a long standing discourse on the subject of sheet materials in architecture, in part because these are so ubiquitous in conventional construction. Expanding the understanding of these materials is valuable to the architectural profession, as it allows one to discover new potentials concerning materials which are already familiar. Being a sheet material, plywood thus offers many advantages as a subject of research and experimentation. Like other sheet materials, it can facilitate the creation of complex geometry using initially planar elements. Three-ply plywood is the material of choice for this thesis due to its ability to offer high amounts of flexibility in one direction, without compromising its strength. Three-ply plywood, as previously described, is made up of odd layers, two of which are oriented in one direction, while the center layer lies perpendicularly to the outer layers. Thus, due to the predominant fiber direction present in the two outer layers, three-ply plywood possesses a natural tendency to bend perpendicularly to this grain direction. The core of the assembly, otherwise known as the center layer, provides strength to the assembly by offering resistance to the predominant fiber direction. As a result, the plywood assembly is less likely to break or snap when being bent because it is reinforced by one interior sheet containing fibers running perpendicular to the outer layers. Knowledge of the manufacturing process for plywood is important for this research because it provides an introduction to lamination techniques that can be further utilized in the material investigations and implementations that will follow. The process described above elaborates on the procedure involved in the mass-produced manufacturing of flat plywood sheets used in the building industry. However, the process of lamination need not strictly apply to planar surfaces, but also to the development of three-dimensional forms. [1] J. M. Dinwoodie, Timber: Its Nature and Behaviour (London: EFN Spon, 2000). [2] T. Herzog, Holzbau Atlas (Basel: Birkhà ¤user, 2003). [3] A. Alcorn, Embodied Energy Coefficients of Building Materials (Wellington: Centre for Building Performance Research, 1996), 92. [4] Joseph Kolb, Systems in Timber Engineering: Loadbearing Structures and Component Layers (Basel: Birkhà ¤user, 2008), 19. [5] J.E Gordon, Structure (Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 2003). [6] A Resource That Lasts Forever, last modified July 23, 2014, http://www.greenwoodresources.com/ [7] Barnett and Jeronimidis, Wood Quality and its Biological Basis (Oxford: Blackwell CRC Press, 2003). [8] Composite Materials Natural Woods. Last modified July 23, 2014, http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/composit1.html. â€Å"Composite materials, sometimes referred to as composites, are materials composed of two or more component parts. These component parts may have different physical or chemical properties and when carefully inspected, they appear as separate parts, bonded together, forming a composite material. [9] R. Bruce Hoadley, Understanding Wood: A Craftsmans Guide to Wood Technology (Newtown, Conn.: Taunton Press, 2000). [10] R. Wagenfà ¼hr, Anatomie des Holzes : Strukturanalytik, Identifizierung, Nomenklatur, Mikrotechnologie (Leinfelden-Echterdingen: DRW-Verlag, 1999). [11] R. Wagenfà ¼hr, Anatomie des Holzes : Strukturanalytik, Identifizierung, Nomenklatur, Mikrotechnologie (Leinfelden-Echterdingen: DRW-Verlag, 1999). [12] T. Herzog, Holzbau Atlas. (Basel: Birkhà ¤user, 2003). [13] Lucas A. and Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries (Dover Publications; 4th edition, 2011), 451. [14] H. Taylor John, Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt (Chicago: U of Chicago, 2001), 218. [15] L. Patrick Robert and Minford J. Dean, Treatise on Adhesion and Adhesives (CRC Press, 1991), 3.