Use of Wood as a Building Material

Use of Wood as a Building Material Wood is quite unique when compared to most building materials used today given that its material makeup is a result of naturally grown biological tissue (ill.18). Thus, the material makeup and structure of wood is significantly different than that of most industrially produced, isotropic materials. Upon close examination, wood can be described as an anisotropic natural fiber composite. In contrast to isotropy, which constitutes identical properties in all directions of a material, anisotropy concerns the property of being directionally dependent. For instance, one can see this in the way that wood can bend easily in the tangential axis (ill.19) which is the direction perpendicular to its grain direction. When examining wood from any given angle, one can identify material characteristics and behaviours specific to that angle, relative to the material’s main grain orientation. That is to say, should one examine the material properties of wood at an angle 45 degrees to the main g rain orientation, one will discover properties extremely different than those obtained from an angle 90 degrees to the main grain orientation. The directionally dependent property of wood is a result of the horizontal or vertical orientation of the individual cells and the arrangements of growth layers in a tree.[1] Throughout architectural history, this inherent heterogeneity of wood as well as its complex material characteristics have often been characterized as deficiencies by architects, engineers and members of the timber industry.[2] This can be traced to the fact that most designs and construction methodologies used today require the use of materials bearing minimal variations in their properties and behaviours in order to satisfy the need for isotropic structures. In contrast, this thesis views wood’s complex material makeup and its capacities as significant advantages rather than deficiencies. Furthermore, it aims to understand these interesting characteristics of wood and employ them through an informed design process. In addition to these complex material properties, wood also presents many favorable characteristics including diversity, weight, strength, appearance, workability, cost and availability. Another factor that makes wood a very appealing material today concerns its overall ecological advantages. In light of the environmental challenges that the built environment is facing today, it is becoming increasingly recognized that very few building materials can rival woods environmental benefits. Wood is a natural, renewable material that holds a very low level of embodied energy. It is known for its ability to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by storing CO2 and also by substituting for materials with a high carbon content[3]. In this manner, the use of wood actually produces a positive carbon footprint.[4] Wood is also an extremely energy efficient building material in its production. For example, wood requires 50 times less energy in its manufacturing than steel to ensure a given structural st iffness as a whole.[5] Unlike many natural resources, forests consist of a renewable resource. With careful forest management, one can ensure that forests thrive and continue to provide the many benefits to which we have become accustomed. Foresters can calculate an allowable cut of trees per year for any given forest area that will secure a stable harvest. Tree farming is yet another way of sustainably satisfying todays demand for wood. Programs at Oak Ridge National Laboratory have engineered a breed of super trees that can grow at rapid speeds in order to create a substantial amount of bio mass in a single given acre. These engineered trees are being farmed at tree farms such as the Boardman Tree Farm LLC, and are redefining modern forestry (ill.20). The Boardman Tree Farm plantations are located in eastern Oregon, United States, where dry desert land has been transformed into a thirty thousand acre farm. This plantation currently has seventy million trees and is capable of producing half a million tree s every year to satisfy demands. The plantation harvests five acres of trees every day in order to maintain this continuous cycle.[6] As a result of woods naturally-grown origin, its unique material composition accounts for most of its properties and characteristics.[7] The aim of the thesis is to explore some of the potential ways of utilizing the material properties and specific material characteristics of wood in the design field. In order to do so, the heterogeneous structure of wood must first be understood in greater detail. Wood can be defined as a low-density, cellular, composite material and as such, does not readily fall into a single class of material, but rather overlaps a number of classes. In terms of its high strength performance and affordability, timber remains the worlds most successful fiber composite. On the microscopic scale, one can describe wood as a natural fiber composite.[8] (Ill.21) Wood cells are comprised of layers, upon which cellulose microfibrils function like fibers embedded in a matrix of lignin and hemicelluloses, reinforcing the assembly as a whole. Due to this makeup at the microscopic level, wood shares a number of properties with materials like: synthetic composites, reinforced plastics, fiberglass, and carbon fiber. Similar to wood, these materials are characterized with relatively low stiffness in combination with relatively high structural capacity. In other words, wood contains innate elastic properties especially well-suited for construction methods that seek to employ elasticity in achieving complex lightweight structures from initially planar elements. What follows is intended as a brief overview of the material composition of wood. Understanding the anatomical aspects of wood is imperative to the research and investigations that have been conducted. In contrast to building materials that are specifically designed and manufactured to suit the needs of an architect or an engineer, wood is a result of the biological tissue functions that take place in a tree. Although there exists a wide variety of species of trees in the world, all trees, despite their diversity, share certain characteristics. Trees are all vascular and perennial which means they are capable of adding yearly growth to previously grown wood. The growth process of a tree occurs in the cambium, a thin layer of living cells between the bark of the tree and the inner stem structure. (Ill.22) Cambial cells have thin walls and divide themselves lengthwise to grow into two new cells. Following the cell division, one of the two cells enlarges to become another cambial mother cell while the other either matures into a bark cell or forms towards the inside of the cambium to become a new wood cell. When the primary wood cells reach maturity and develop into their mature size, a secondary wall is constructed from long chain hemicellulose and cellulose molecules. The long chains of cellulose molecules are oriented in a direction parallel to the long axis of the cells and reinforced by lignin (ill.23). Lignin is an integral part of the woods cellulous structure because it provides support for the cells. It is also the material that gives rigidity to plants.[9] The distribution and orientation of the cells along with the material structure of the cell walls determine most of the resulting characteristics and properties of wood.[10] Trees are characterized into two types: softwoods and hardwoods (ill.24). The terms ‘softwood’ and ‘hardwood’ do not signify softness or hardness of wood. The two terminologies are related to the botany of the species and to the way in which a tree grows. The differences between the two types of wood can be seen in the cellular structure of the materials. In the relatively simple cellular structure of softwood, nine tenths of the wood volume consists of one cell type called tracheid, while the remainder consist of ray tissues. Tracheids are fiber-like cells and have a length-to-width ratio of 100:1, meaning that they are approximately one hundred times longer than they are wide. The tracheid cells are arranged parallel to the stem axis located in the radial layers of the tree and are responsible for the transport of water and minerals throughout the tree. In contrast, a much greater variety of cell types and arrangement configurations are present in hardwoods. In addition to tracheids, hardwoods also contain vessels, rays and fiber cells. Vessel elements in hardwood have a large diameter and thin walls, containing no end-to-end walls. As a result, they are arranged in an end-to-end formation that is parallel to the stem axis of the tree, forming continuous channels that carry sap through the tree. Unlike vessels, fiber cells are much smaller in diameter and have thicker cell walls and possess closed tapered ends (ill.25). In both softwood and hardwood, the structure, distribution and orientation of cells are the determining factors of the anisotropic, structural, and hygroscopic characteristics of wood.[11] The anisotropic and hygroscopic characteristics of wood resulting from its internal cellular structure have traditionally been regarded as problematic in the practices of architecture and structural engineering, especially when compared to more homogeneous, stable, industrially produced isotropic materials like steel, plastic or glass. In design approaches within architecture, engineering and timber industries, knowledge of wood’s material composition and characteristics has mostly been employed to counterbalance its complex material behaviours.[12] For instance, the development of engineered industrial wood products (ex: MDF, or cross-laminated-timber) came as a response to the heterogeneous composition of wood. These wood products are capable of producing a material that is much more homogenous and which provides isotropic material characteristics. Unfortunately, the design opportunities that could be made possible using the innate heterogeneous characteristics of wood are too often overlooked in todays construction projects. In fact, particularly in North America, the construction material of wood is often no longer referred to as such. Instead, wood is referred to as a dimensional building element, such as a ‘24’. The aim of this research is to propose an alternative approach to design which views wood’s complex material composition and related behaviours as advantageous rather than problematic. Such an integrated design approach can perhaps contribute towards a renewed appreciation for the behavioral capacities of wood and the rich design opportunities that can be realized thanks to the natural anatomy of this material. Three-ply plywood and veneer are unmistakably industrially-produced materials. However, unlike other industrially-produced materials such as steel, glass, plastic, MDF or particle board, three-ply plywood and veneer are anisotropic materials. This signifies that the properties and behaviours of these materials vary significantly in relation to the fiber direction. For example, veneer and plywood encounter considerable differences in stiffness depending on the grain direction. The compressive strength of wood differs significantly depending on grain direction, as do most of its other mechanical and material properties. The following section details the manufacturing process of veneer and plywood in order to better understand the material exploration that will be presented in Chapter 3. Plywood may appear to be a relatively new industrially-produced wood product, however its concept is in fact very old and can be traced back to more than 5,000 years. Before the word â€Å"plywood† was invented in the 1920s, the process was referred to as veneering. One of the earliest traces of plywood was found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun, an Egyptian Pharaoh who ruled around the year 1334 BC. The discovered pieces of plywood were remains of coffins made of six layers of wood, each 4mm thick and held together by glue and wooden pegs.[13] The plywood remains were fabricated using the same fundamental techniques as today. Like modern plywood, the grains of the layers where arranged perpendicularly with each layer for strength[14] (ill.26). From this period onwards, veneering techniques became increasingly widespread throughout the world. Thanks to the development of tools and technology over the years, veneer thicknesses were reduced and new adhesives (ex: glue made from b one, sinew and cartilage) were used to bond the layers together with heat.[15] Although plywood is made much in the same way today, modernized adhesion techniques and tools used in its production have improved significantly, making it one of the most affordable and easily-produced building materials. Both hardwoods and softwoods are used in the production of plywood. The typical sequence of operation involved in the production of plywood is as follows: There exists a long standing discourse on the subject of sheet materials in architecture, in part because these are so ubiquitous in conventional construction. Expanding the understanding of these materials is valuable to the architectural profession, as it allows one to discover new potentials concerning materials which are already familiar. Being a sheet material, plywood thus offers many advantages as a subject of research and experimentation. Like other sheet materials, it can facilitate the creation of complex geometry using initially planar elements. Three-ply plywood is the material of choice for this thesis due to its ability to offer high amounts of flexibility in one direction, without compromising its strength. Three-ply plywood, as previously described, is made up of odd layers, two of which are oriented in one direction, while the center layer lies perpendicularly to the outer layers. Thus, due to the predominant fiber direction present in the two outer layers, three-ply plywood possesses a natural tendency to bend perpendicularly to this grain direction. The core of the assembly, otherwise known as the center layer, provides strength to the assembly by offering resistance to the predominant fiber direction. As a result, the plywood assembly is less likely to break or snap when being bent because it is reinforced by one interior sheet containing fibers running perpendicular to the outer layers. Knowledge of the manufacturing process for plywood is important for this research because it provides an introduction to lamination techniques that can be further utilized in the material investigations and implementations that will follow. The process described above elaborates on the procedure involved in the mass-produced manufacturing of flat plywood sheets used in the building industry. However, the process of lamination need not strictly apply to planar surfaces, but also to the development of three-dimensional forms. [1] J. M. Dinwoodie, Timber: Its Nature and Behaviour (London: EFN Spon, 2000). [2] T. Herzog, Holzbau Atlas (Basel: Birkhà ¤user, 2003). [3] A. Alcorn, Embodied Energy Coefficients of Building Materials (Wellington: Centre for Building Performance Research, 1996), 92. [4] Joseph Kolb, Systems in Timber Engineering: Loadbearing Structures and Component Layers (Basel: Birkhà ¤user, 2008), 19. [5] J.E Gordon, Structure (Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 2003). [6] A Resource That Lasts Forever, last modified July 23, 2014, http://www.greenwoodresources.com/ [7] Barnett and Jeronimidis, Wood Quality and its Biological Basis (Oxford: Blackwell CRC Press, 2003). [8] Composite Materials Natural Woods. Last modified July 23, 2014, http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/composit1.html. â€Å"Composite materials, sometimes referred to as composites, are materials composed of two or more component parts. These component parts may have different physical or chemical properties and when carefully inspected, they appear as separate parts, bonded together, forming a composite material. [9] R. Bruce Hoadley, Understanding Wood: A Craftsmans Guide to Wood Technology (Newtown, Conn.: Taunton Press, 2000). [10] R. Wagenfà ¼hr, Anatomie des Holzes : Strukturanalytik, Identifizierung, Nomenklatur, Mikrotechnologie (Leinfelden-Echterdingen: DRW-Verlag, 1999). [11] R. Wagenfà ¼hr, Anatomie des Holzes : Strukturanalytik, Identifizierung, Nomenklatur, Mikrotechnologie (Leinfelden-Echterdingen: DRW-Verlag, 1999). [12] T. Herzog, Holzbau Atlas. (Basel: Birkhà ¤user, 2003). [13] Lucas A. and Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries (Dover Publications; 4th edition, 2011), 451. [14] H. Taylor John, Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt (Chicago: U of Chicago, 2001), 218. [15] L. Patrick Robert and Minford J. Dean, Treatise on Adhesion and Adhesives (CRC Press, 1991), 3.

Human Resource Management Essay

Human Resource Management (Fall 2013) MGMT 351 CASE STUDY 2 I Feel Great Les Partain, manager of the training and development department for Gazelle Corporation, was 64 years old and had been with the firm for over 30 years. For the past 12 years he had served as Gazelle’s training and development manager and felt that he had been doing a good job. This belief was supported by the fact that during the last five years he had received excellent performance reports from his boss, LaConya Caesar, HR director. Six months before Les’s birthday, he and LaConya were enjoying a cup of coffee together. â€Å"Les,† said LaConya, â€Å"I know that you’re pleased with the progress our T&D section has made under your leadership. We’re really going to miss you when you retire this year. You’ll certainly live the good life because you’ll receive the maximum retirement benefits. If I can be of any assistance to you in developing the paperwork for your retirement, please let me know.† â€Å"Gee, LaConya,† said Les. â€Å"I really appreciate the good words, but I’ve never felt better in my life, and although our retirement plan is excellent, I figure that I have at least five more good years. There are many other things I would like to do for the department before I retire. I have some excellent employees, and we can get many things done within the next five years.† After finishing their coffee, both returned to their work. As LaConya left, she was thinking, â€Å"My gosh, I had no idea that character intended to hang on. The only reason I gave him those good performance appraisals was to make him feel better before he retired. He was actually only an average worker and I was anxious to move a more aggressive person into that key job. We stand to lose several good people in that department if Les doesn’t leave. From what they tell me, he’s not doing too much of a job.† QUESTIONS 1. From a legal viewpoint, what do you believe LaConya can do regarding this situation? Discuss. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. What actions should LaConya have taken in the past to avoid her current predicament? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Grand Canyon National Park, New York City, and the...

Grand Canyon National Park Short Report The Grand Canyon is one of the most amazing natural wonders in the world. It was originally deposited sediment that was lithofied, and turned into sedimentary rock. The rock was then carved out by hydraulic processes (Warneke). These processes, all combined, took almost three to six million years to form the Grand Canyon. Continued erosion by wind and rain in the present time continues to shift what the canyon looks like, and make it different as time goes on (Grand Canyon Facts). This seemingly boring process came to fruition in one of the most beloved National Parks in the United States of America. The Grand Canyon National Park is located in the state of Arizona. It is over 270 miles long and,†¦show more content†¦Although it was a National Park it was still not frequently visited, and only had, approximately, 44,173 visitors a year, the first year it opened. Now it has over five million visitors every single year. However, if it had not been for the Civilian Conservation Corps, the park might not be in the condition it is today. In 1933, Franklin Delano Roosevelt created the Civilian Conservation Corps as a part of his New Deal (Audretsch). On May 19, 1933 the first Civilian Conservation Corps Company, Company 819 arrived in the Grand Canyon. They did many things for the park, including building stone walls alongside the rim of the canyon (to protect places such as El Tovar Hotel and Bright Angel Lodge). In addition they worked to improve the Brig ht Angel Trail, and worked to landscape the Grand Canyon Village (Audretsch). It is because of their hard work that the Community Building at the Grand Canyon exists today. New York City Short Report New York City is the largest city in the United States of America. It has a population of over eight million people (NYC.gov). However, New York City has not always been this big. It started out undiscovered and untouched by Europeans. The first natives of New York City were the Lenape and Algonquin people. (History.com Staff) These two native groups worked the land between the Hudson and Delaware rivers for their food by farming and fishing (History.com Staff). However, at the beginning of

Serial Killers Are Defined As Those Whocommitstake The

Serial killers are defined as those who commits take the lives of 3 people in over a period of a month. Most serial killers commit murder for some sort of psychological beneift. Serial killers vary in many ways, some serial killers have patterns, some have motives, some are organized and other are disorganized. Richard â€Å"The Ice Man† Leonard Kuklinski, Aileen Wuornos, and Charles Cullen are three specific serial killers who all had different motives for taking the lives of many innocent people. Richard The Iceman Leonard Kuklinski was born in in April of 1953. Anna McNally, Kuklinkis mother was a catholic who worked at the church. His father Stanley was a violent alcoholic, that beat Kuklinksi and his sib siblings daily Kuklinski†¦show more content†¦He often killed people who were loud and obnoxious and reminded him of his father. While committing murder, he often imagined killing his father. Murder became an occupation of the Kolinski. Murder became the way he provided for his family. Kuklinski killed within his own community. If someone rubbed him the wrong way, for some imaginary or tremendously slight reason he would shoot, stab the man to death. Kuklinski admits in his interview enjoyed the challenge the most, and the physically murder was second. He enjoyed stalking, and pulling off the murder. He got a rise of empowerment (Kuklinski, n.d). At the young age of 14, Kuklinski joined a neighborhood gang. Kuklinski was bullied, by a young boy named Charley L ane. Kuklinski beat Charley Lane to death with a thick wooden dowel. Lanes body was never found, Kuklinski dumped the body off a bridge. Kuklinski dismembered the body to prevent identification by taking out his teach and chopping off the fingertips of his victim. He began his killing spree by being a hit man for the mafia. Kuklinski had earned his street reputation as an hotheaded person who would severely harm or kill anyone who got in his way.. His reputation eventually attracted the attention of the Newark s DeCavalcante crime family, where he took care of their business by killing or harming people for a paid living. Shortly after Kuklinski began raiding Hell s Kitchen searching for victims,

Is Mass Media Harming our Society Essay - 612 Words

In todays society, mass media, including television, radio, and newspaper or magazines have become very dependable sources to so many people. People spend many hours everyday reading about celebrities in the tabloids, watching biased news channels, or participating in violent video games. Even though most media is highly entertaining, people have become so reliant on media that we seem to be harming our community in a very negative fashion. Mass media works as a socializing factor and affects the way we view the world and how we interact with other people. However, the messages that are seen in most of the magazines these days are negative images, especially for the youth of the world. For example, on the front page of popular magazines†¦show more content†¦I read that an average person spends more time watching TV in high school than they do actually sitting in class learning (Alexander and Hanson, 1999). As a community we have put too much emphasis on the importance of TV and the internet that students think that watching the latest shows is more important than taking the time to educate themselves on topics that might actually benefit him or her. Media has the ability to alter opinions, especially on vulnerable minds. The media also is known for making horrible topics seem glamorous and packaging horrifying topics such as war and killing as glorious entertainment (Lifestyle Lounge: Society). Television is the most influencial invention since the twentieth century and has had more impact of the minds of many people than newspaper and internet. By watching an action pact movie about killings and violence, a young mind can grow a new opinion that killing someone is not that big of a deal because his favorite movie star did it without thinking twice about it. Furthermore, the advertisements we see strung up all over the highways and on the radio teach us mixed signals towards what it right and what is wrong. There are alcohol Ads next to an anorexic gir l modeling clothes next to a fast food Ad talking about how cheap and delicious there food is. There are many better solutionsShow MoreRelated Media Stereotyping of Men and Women Essay951 Words   |  4 PagesThroughout society, men and women have been expected to live by guidelines consisting of media generated ideas and ways of living out life. Both men and women’s thinking process are being altered the negative effects of society’s mass media. For both sexes, this repeating negative exposure causes a constant downfall in self-image and creates media influenced decisions that lead to unhealthy lifestyles. 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Essay Week Free Essays

At the same time it has to do with the way in which the individual reaches those needs. The action taken to reach the needs, goals, should be according to specific guidelines, thus rules. Those rules are culturally and historically defined. We will write a custom essay sample on Essay Week or any similar topic only for you Order Now These rules state the actions that are allowed for the individual to take in order to reach his or her goal, but also state the actions that are â€Å"not-done†. For example driving a car can be rational and not rational depending on the way one drives the car. On a certain highway the speed limit Is km/h. If someone drives faster than 100 km/h then he or she will get a speeding ticket. If one drives 100 km/h then the driving Is rational because It Is according to the rules and one drives with the goal of not getting a speeding ticket. If one decides to drive km,’h it is not rational anymore because the driving is not done according to the rules even though one can have a goal of getting to the destination faster. This definition of rationality is not to be confused with the rational choice theory. Rational choice theory uses a specific and narrower definition of â€Å"rationality† simply to mean that an individual acts as if balancing costs against benefits to arrive at action that maximizes personal advantage. † (â€Å"Rational choice theory,† 2014) This means that according to the rational choice theory an action is rational If It Is the best action. An action Is the best action If one checks all the options one has and then comes to the conclusion that th is action gives me the most benefits for the least amounts of costs. For example if one has the choice beet;en going outside in the winter with a coat or without, the benefits of going outside with the coat outweigh that of going outside without the coat. One would in this case choose to go outside with the coat according to the rational choice theory. As I mentioned before rationality consists of goals and rules. Every individual or organization can choose which goals he or she wants to achieve. The rules on the other hand are not something which is exclusively the matter of an individual or single organization. The rules are imposed on Individuals or organizations by the society around them. The society decides what the rules are based on assembling. â€Å"Assembling Is the ongoing retrospective development of plausible Images that rationalize what people are doing. † (College, 2011, p. 63) them. This interpretation differs between different cultures, and even between efferent individuals in one culture. This perceiving and interpreting of the world is an ongoing process, it happens all the time. It is retrospective, meaning that we review the sense that we made of what happened. So we sense what we sensed with new data. It is plausible because it is never perfect, but rather good enough for the things we sense and people that sense it. It is an image because we try to represent the thing that we sense in the form of models, plans or mental maps. Because sneaking is different for different people, the rules that come out of this sneaking is also different. This in turn results in different rationalities, because the rules that are used are different. As suggested in the book there could be different rationalities at play at the same time in an organization. For example the finance department can have as a rationality to be completely honest about the financial state of the organization. At the same time the finance department can have as a rationality to give a positive financial state of an organization. Those two rationalities can in times of financial setbacks collide with each other. Another example can be found with the employees. The first rationality of the employee could e to earn as much money as possible. At the same time the employee can have as a second rationality to work as less as possible. How to cite Essay Week, Essays

Advertisement Analysis Essay Example For Students

Advertisement Analysis Essay What is media? Media is anything that gives ideas to the public. It also gives everyone information about what is happening in the world. For example books. Some national geographic books tell the society about things. For example a book can tell us about pollution. Some books can even tell us about ancient civilization. I have a book that talks about the earth. There even is a Disney animated movie called earth. Other examples of media are television, newspapers, radios, billboards and computers. What are advertisements? Advertisements are forms of communication showed to the public. They try to persuade the public into buying a product. Advertisements can be found in newspapers, posters or broadcasts. Why is it important for advertisements to be persuasive? It is important because if the advertisements are not persuasive then no one will buy the product. If no one buys the product then the company will have no money. If the company has no money then it will be in financial difficulties. Basically media tells the public about the world and advertisements sell products. Also advertis. Some people might think the language is ridiculous and inappropriate. Most young people would find this ad very natural to them. I am not saying that old people wouldnt like this ad, but some of them might not get it or understand the humor of the ad. It all depends what your definition of humor is. The audience is mainly designed for younger people. I can conclude this by seeing that all the people in cabin are young, maybe in there 20s. Also they could be snowboarding and not a lot of old people snowboard. So this ad is mainly to attract the younger folks. The design of this is pretty thought out. The whole logo is in red, and the ad is in black and white so they try to catch your attention by doing that. You turn the page in the magazine and all of sudden you see take off your pants and stay a while you probably are going to see what the ad is all about. I think its smart advertising that they have the main logo in red and the alcohol colored but the background in black and white. The captain is also smiling and everybody is having a good time so you think to yourself I guess this alcohol makes you have a good time. I would rate this ad out of a 10 probably an 8 because it really catches my attention but also I think they were trying way to hard to do it and that made it really obvious. Otherwise its a nice ad and a pretty good way of advertising. Bibliography: .